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Les poissons

mercredi 18 mars 2009, par Allerdata


Dans certains pays le poisson représente une cause fréquente d’allergie alimentaire . Cela est favorisé par les habitudes alimentaires locales (ex. Japon, Espagne, Pays scandinaves, ..). De fait, le pic d’incidence pour l’apparition de cette allergie correspond souvent à l’introduction du poisson dans la diversification alimentaire infantile : en Espagne, cela se situe entre 6 mois et 1 an.

Un terrain atopique favorise aussi la sensibilisation au poisson , laquelle est souvent accompagnée d’un eczéma atopique .

Les données du CICBAA révèlent que le poisson était au 6ème rang avant 15 ans et au 13ème après cet âge, avec une fréquence relative de 4,3% et 1,9% parmi l’ensemble des allergies alimentaires colligées en mai 2007.

Le Réseau d’Allergo-Vigilance avait relevé en mai 2010 14 cas de réaction sévère avec le poisson, ce qui plaçait cet aliment dans une position intermédiaire en France : à la fois cause d’accidents très graves et cependant moins souvent impliqué que d’autres produits de la mer comme les crustacés (55 cas) .

Le poisson est avant tout une ressource nutritionnelle de première importance dans beaucoup de régions du globe, mais il fournit également des produits dérivés : si certains, comme le surimi, sont directement issus de la chair, d’autres sont obtenus avec les œufs (ex. caviar), la peau (ex. gélatines), le sperme (ex. protamine), le foie (ex. huile), etc.. Ces derniers ont fait l’objet d’un nombre restreint de travaux tendant à montrer l’absence d’allergénicité chez des patients avec réactions alimentaires au poisson .


Les causes de contact involontaire ou méconnu avec la chair de poisson sont multiples car le poisson est un ingrédient de nombreuses recettes du fait de son apport gustatif. Si le cas des pizzas avec des anchois est classique, des sauces comme la Worcester ou la « César » peuvent contenir aussi de l’anchois.

Des hydrolysats de poisson sont parfois utilisés comme réhausseurs de goût également. Une étude a montré une très faible IgE-réactivité résiduelle dans ce type de produits .

La vérification in vivo de tels résultats serait utile car certains patients présentent une sensibilité extrême se manifestant lors d’exposition à des doses infimes de protéines allergisantes.


Ainsi, certains auteurs estiment à environ 10% la proportion des patients avec allergie alimentaire au poisson qui ont également des réactions aux vapeurs de cuisson et/ou par contact cutané avec du poisson .

Ces réactions à des allergènes de poissons sont une cause fréquente de pathologie professionnelle . Cependant, une allergie alimentaire concomitante au poisson n’est rencontrée que dans une minorité des cas .

Les allergènes des poissons

La parvalbumine de morue est l’un des tous premiers allergènes à avoir été purifié . Depuis, il a été montré que les parvalbumines sont les allergènes dominants chez les poissons en général.

Le contenu en parvalbumine est cependant variable d’un poisson à un autre, plus élevé vers la tête que vers la queue , plus élevé dans la chair blanche que dans la chair rouge . De même, l’homologie entre parvalbumines comparables, de type béta s’agissant de la plupart des poissons, n’est pas aussi forte qu’entre tropomyosines de crustacés par exemple : ainsi, Gad c 1 et Gad m 1, bien que provenant de deux espèces voisines de morue n’ont que 65% d’identité environ (cf. Parvalbumines.

Les études de réactivité croisée montrent que certains poissons inhibent la parvalbumine de morue nGad c 1 plus difficilement que ne le font d’autres poissons .

Les poissons cartilagineux, quant à eux, possèdent des alpha-parvalbumines qui ont également une homologie modérée avec les béta-parvalbumines de morue, de carpe, etc..

Tous ces aspects pourraient influer sur la réactivité in vitro et sur l’allergènicité des différents poissons (cf. Poissons : polyréactivité / monoréactivité)

Les poissons n’échappent pas à la règle et ne contiennent pas qu’une seule sorte d’allergènes. En blot de nombreux patients montrent une IgE-réactivité multiple. Très peu de ces protéines IgE-réactives ont été caractérisées en dehors des parvalbumines.

Les chercheurs nancéens ont montré la présence d’une aldéhyde-phosphate deshydrogénase (41 kDa) dans plusieurs poissons. L’IgE-réactivité de cette enzyme a été vérifiée pour la morue . Une triose-phosphate isomérase de 20 kD a été caractérisée , mais son IgE-réactivité est à étudier.

Ces auteurs ont aussi montré que la parvalbumine de morue de l’Atlantique (Gad m 1) pouvait s’oligomériser , ce qui pourrait correspondre à certaines bandes de plus de 13 kD observées en blot avec la morue .


Enfin, ils ont montré que le procédé de lavage/texturage intensif utilisé pour produire le surimi débarrassait apparemment le produit final de sa parvalbumine puisqu’une bande quasi-unique de 63 kD subsistait dans le surimi et que la réactivité en tests cutanés était affaiblie . La nature de cette bande de 63 kD n’est pas élucidée pour l’instant.

Il est à remarquer que ces données obtenues avec du surimi de morue ne sont peut-être pas généralisables à d’autres types de surimi. Le lieu d’Alaska (Theragra chalcogramma) est utilisé par exemple aux USA , quand le surimi ne dérive pas d’un mélange de poissons … pas toujours précis .

Le collagène est aussi un allergène dans le poisson : Hamada rapporte une IgE-réactivité pour le collagène de thon chez des patients allergiques aux poissons .

Ce collagène est cross-réactif avec le collagène d’autres poissons . La place du collagène dans l’allergie aux poissons est mal connue. De plus, le collagène étant insoluble à froid a toutes chances d’être absent des extraits commerciaux de poisson, lesquels sont obtenus classiquement sur poisson cru.

Le collagène de poisson sert à préparer des gélatines, elles-mêmes non dénuées d’une possible allergénicité (cf. Gélatines).

Poissons : polyréactivité /monoréactivité

En principe, un patient allergique à une espèce de poisson réagit (ou est à risque de réagir) à d’autres espèces de poissons par réactivité croisée (RC) entre les allergènes principaux des poissons, les parvalbumines.

La polyréactivité n’est pas systématique ni totale : environ la moitié seulement des patients allergiques à un poisson seraient allergiques à un ou d’autre(s) poisson(s) .

Cependant, quelques études ont cherché à confirmer la réalité de cette polyréactivité avec des tests de provocation orale (TPO) . Il ressort de ces travaux que la réactivité cutanée peut être large (ex. 73% des sujets avec un test cutané positif pour les 10 poissons testés) mais qu’en TPO une majorité des patients toléraient certains poissons.

Par ailleurs, il a été rapporté de nombreux cas d’allergie isolée à une espèce précise de poisson.

L’analyse de la littérature au sujet de la polyréactivité vis à vis des poissons est rendue complexe par :
 la très grande diversité des espèces consommées et leur aspect souvent régional
 l’hétérogénéité des méthodes diagnostiques, tant en TC qu’in vitro : TC natifs ou non, extraits obtenus à partir de poisson cru (le plus souvent) ou cuit, etc..

Quelques cas de mono- ou pauci-réactivités :
 sole tropicale, avec en blot une bande à 40 kD
 espadon , le patient ayant une bande 26 kD
 une autre mono-réactivité espadon
 mérou , avec une réactivité cutanée pour le merlu
 roussette , avec aussi TC positif pour requin et raie
 perche , le blot ne montrant pas de bande 13 kD (parvalbumine)
 thon et espadon , avec une réactivité autour des 100 kD
 thon et saumon , sans bande 13 kD mais plutôt 30-50 kD
 colin (42 kD) et sole (26-85 kD)
 thon sans allergie à la morue et une bande 40 kD
 thon (100 kDa) et makaire (94 kDa) sans réactivité pour d’autres poissons
 allergie isolée à la cardine franche, avec positivité pour une bande 20 kDa

On peut remarquer dans cette liste la présence de poissons d’eaux tropicales et aussi une IgE-réactivité non classique avec des bandes différentes de 13 kD (parvalbumines).

Sans minimiser les aspects techniques qui pourraient expliquer ces réactivités particulières in vitro (extraits crus ou cuits, blots avec ou sans réduction, etc..), il se peut que ces allergies isolées représentent une susceptibilité spécifique des patients pour telle ou telle protéine dans tel ou tel poisson.

Ces observations pourraient soulever la question d’une exploration plus approfondie (par TPO ?) avant de conclure à une éviction totale de tous les poissons.

Une autre hypothèse a été émise pour expliquer la non réactivité à certains poissons : l’absence apparente de parvalbumine et/ou la perte de l’IgE-réactivité du fait d’une forte température à la cuisson.
Le cas du thon a été largement débattu à ce sujet.


Le cas du thon

Une moindre allergènicité du thon par rapport à d’autres poissons a été accréditée a la suite de travaux de Bernhisel-Broadbent, notamment sur le thon en boîte . Pascual également a noté que, si une tolérance pour au moins 1 poisson était présente parmi 31 enfants/79, 29 de ces 31 enfants toléraient le thon .

Le thon étant aussi consommé cru, l’allergènicité du thon ne dépend pas que de sa cuisson.

Il est possible que le procédé utilisé pour l’appertisation (115°C) modifie les protéines par perte de la structure spatiale et par co-agrégation : le produit final serait moins IgE-réactif .

Des résultats contrastés ont cependant été publiés, certains patients tolérant le thon en boîte quand d’autres y étaient allergiques , avec parfois une réactivité élective à des allergènes de masse élevée (une transferrine ?) .

Beaucoup d’auteurs se sont interrogés sur la présence ou non de parvalbumine dans le thon. Leurs résultats sont, là aussi, contrastés :
 une absence apparente de parvalbumine (ou de bande 12-13 kD) est donnée par plusieurs auteurs
 des taux très faibles ou une absence de parvalbumine dans la chair rouge, laquelle est plus développée dans le thon que dans d’autres poissons ,
 mais pour l’équipe de Valenta la parvalbumine de carpe (Cyp c 1) inhibe très bien le thon et un extrait de morue inhibe une bande 12 kD dans le thon . Une nette bande de 12 kD est retrouvée aussi dans un autre travail .
 de même Shiomi montre qu’un anticorps anti-Cyp c 1 reconnaît 2 protéines de masse compatible avec les parvalbumines dans un extrait de thon obèse (T. obesus).

La question de l’absence de parvalbumine dans le thon semble donc tranchée : le thon contient bien de la parvalbumine comme d’autres poissons. Et la particularité du thon pourrait plutôt provenir d’une proportion plus grande de chair rouge que dans d’autres poissons.

Par exemple, dans une observation d’allergie aux viandes de volaille, au thon et au saumon, le patient avait un TC positif pour la chair blanche de thon et négatif pour la chair rouge . Ce patient réagissait à l’alpha parvalbumine de poulet mais l’allergie au thon ne provenait pas d’une réactivité à une alpha parvalbumine dans le thon (le blot montrait des bandes non compatibles avec la masse des parvalbumines, et le patient était négatif pour la parvalbumine purifiée de thon).

Globalement, l’allergènicité du thon pourrait être plus faible que celle de la morue : en CAP certains auteurs ont relevé jusqu’à 42% de résultats négatifs pour le thon chez des sujets positifs pour la morue . Mais une bonne concordance (12/13 patients) a été retrouvée par d’autres auteurs .

Il ne peut donc être conclu que le thon est sans danger chez un patient allergique à d’autres poissons sans explorations complémentaires (TPO ?).

D’autres poissons moins allergisants ?

Un contenu apparemment plus faible en parvalbumine et/ou une réactivité in vitro moindre que celle d’autres poissons ont été notés pour le flétan , certains maquereaux , l’espadon , la roussette , et divers poissons tropicaux (hilsa et pomfret , vives , pilchard et sériole ).

Pour Pascual, si des TPO sont envisagés, il pourrait être judicieux de commencer par des poissons a priori moins allergisants comme le thon ou l’espadon .

Ces données recoupent plus ou moins une réactivité plus faible in vitro, des cas d’allergie isolée et/ou des réactivités autres que 12-13 kD .

Le cas des poissons cartilagineux (roussette, raies, requins) pourrait trouver son explication par la présence d’alpha-parvalbumines qui ont un faible pourcentage d’identité avec les béta-parvalbumines des poissons téléostes : par exemple 50-55 % avec Cyp c 1, la béta-parvalbumine de carpe.

Poissons : influence de la chaleur et de la digestion

La cuisson modifie le profil protéique des poissons : il est souvent relevé l’apparition de bandes de masse plus élevée .

Les parvalbumines sont thermostables, même en l’absence de leur ligand naturel, le calcium . Leur allergènicité est a priori conservée, bien que des comparaisons avant/après cuisson avec TPO ne semblent pas avoir été entreprises.

Une augmentation de la réactivité cutanée peut se rencontrer , et cette situation rappelle le cas historique de Küstner.

La cuisson du poisson à 100 °C est fréquente mais elle peut s’opérer à des températures plus élevées. Le devenir de l’allergènicité après friture n’a pas été beaucoup étudié : Chatterjee observe des résultats variables selon les patients . dans un autre travail, l’IgE-réactivité n’était pas modifiée après friture (ni après ébullition) .

L’appertisation semble provoquer des modifications d’épitopes et pourrait conduire à une baisse de l’IgE-réactivité, au moins in vitro (cf. Le cas du thon).

Le poisson est généralement fumé à chaud. Les températures sont cependant modestes (env. 70°C). L’évolution de l’allergènicité du fait du fumage, du salage et/ou du séchage n’a été étudiée qu’in vitro  : la parvalbumine est parfois augmentée en blot, parfois diminuée, selon le procédé et/ou le poisson. Des bandes de forte masse apparaissent mais il est difficile de transposer ces modifications en risque clinique.

Le devenir de l’IgE-réactivité après que du poison ait été mariné dans un milieu fortement alcalin (ex. de la soude) a été étudié  : ce poisson, dont la chair est fortement transformée et qui correspond à la recette traditionnelle scandinave du « lutefisk », présentait une IgE-réactivité in vitro globalement augmentée.

La digestion est réputée ne pas affecter l’allergènicité des parvalbumines et donc celle des poissons.

Les parvalbumines sont considérées comme des allergènes « complets », capables par elles-mêmes d’induire la synthèse d’IgE, et cette allergènicité avérée se retrouve dans la fixité de l’allergie pour les poissons.

Pourtant un extrait cru de morue est complètement dégradé en moins d’une minute en digestion gastrique simulée in vitro à pH 1,25 .

Untersmayr a montré que le pH jouait un rôle primordial sur l’efficacité de la digestion peptique de la parvalbumine : comparativement à pH 2, il faut 10 à 30 fois moins de parvalbumine pour provoquer la positivité d’un TPO positif si le pH est de 3 .

On voit que les conditions réalistes sont importantes à considérer et, notamment, la complexité du bol alimentaire qui rend plus aléatoire l’obtention d’un pH très bas.

Des protéines de morue sont détectables dans le sérum tôt après ingestion (10 min), ce qui soulève l’hypothèse d’une absorption pré-intestinale .

Untersmayr souligne enfin le danger que représentent les médications anti-H2 pour les patients sensibilisés aux poissons.

Poissons : influence des procédés de pêche, de conservation et de transformation

Divers travaux ont examiné l’évolution des protéines des poissons du fait des procédés de pêche, d’élevage ou de conservation avant consommation.
 l’extrême surpopulation des poissons dans un espace restreint avant la récolte en aquaculture entraîne une modification du profil protéique
 une protéolyse des myofibrilles et des protéines de la matrice a lieu en post-mortem , mais les blots pré- et post-rigor mortis semblent similaires . La transformation naturelle de la chair du poisson peut être recherchée : c’est le cas pour la gélification du poisson cru dans les recettes asiatiques (ex. kameboko).
 la conservation dans la glace modifie l’IgE-réactivité de la morue : celle de la parvalbumine Gad c 1 diminue mais globalement l’IgE-réactivité est augmentée
 la congélation diminue la bande correspondant à l’aldéhyde-phosphate déshydrogénase dans la morue . Au cours de la conservation en congélation une carbonylation des protéines peut résulter d’un phénomène d’oxydation lipidique . Ces effets de la congélation n’ont pas été étudiés sur le plan de l’IgE-réactivité.

L’industrie agro-alimentaire étant rarement à court d’idées de recettes innovantes, il a été cherché comment utiliser des restes de poisson pour fabriquer des croquettes présentables !  : la transglutaminase microbienne (mTG), associée à l’ajout de protéines de soja, semble donner de bons résultats technologiques. Mais la résultante de ce traitement sur le plan immunologique n’a pas été étudié. Or la transglutaminase, qui est une sorte de colle biologique, crée un réseau très solide entre protéines dont les liens sont très résistants à la digestion. Même si la mTG ne semble pas posséder d’allergénicité en soi , il pourrait être judicieux de vérifier l’absence d’effet sur l’allergénicité des produits sur lesquels on fait agir cette enzyme .

Existe-t-il une allergie croisée poissons – crustacés ou mollusques ?

Il n’est pas rare d’observer une allergie au poisson s’accompagnant de réactions cliniques au contact des crustacés et/ou de mollusques marins. Le rôle des habitudes alimentaires locales peut expliquer en partie cette concomitance. Mais existe-t-il un lien moléculaire entre ces réactions alimentaires, lien qui justifierait d’une éviction globale des produits de la mer ?

Jusqu’à présent il n’a pas été montré de réactivité croisée entre allergènes de poissons et allergènes de crustacés ou de mollusques. La distance taxonomique entre ces espèces vivantes semble trop grande pour permettre l’expression d’une ressemblance épitopique. Ainsi, la tropomyosine de saumon n’a que 54% d’identité avec celle de la crevette Pen a 1.

Aussi, une allergie simultanée à ces divers produits de la mer est plutôt la résultante d’un terrain atopique favorable à des sensibilisations indépendantes et cumulées .

Le diagnostic d’une allergie au(x) poisson(s)

Le poisson tient une place historique parmi les produits allergisants. C’est en effet dès 1921 que le transfert passif d’une réactivité cutanée pour le poisson d’un sujet allergique (Küstner) à un sujet non-allergique (Prausnitz) a été démontré, donnant crédit au caractère « réaginique » de la réaction allergique et naissance au classique « PK-test ».

Le diagnostic d’une allergie alimentaire au poisson ne nécessite pas, en règle générale, de pratiquer un TPO : les tests cutanés et, au besoin, l’IgE-réactivité sérique suffisent pour confirmer une suspicion clinique, dès lors qu’une cause non allergique a été écartée .

En dehors de sa dangérosité éventuelle, un TPO pour le poisson mérite d’être conduit en simple ou double aveugle car le poisson semble entraîner une proportion inhabituelle de TPO positifs en ouvert mais non reproduits en TPODA : Bernhisel-Broadbent donne environ 20% contre autour de 2% pour d’autres aliments .

Pour les tests cutanés comme pour les tests in vitro, les extraits sont presque toujours préparés avec des produits crus. Même si l’allergène principal des poissons, la parvalbumine, n’est pas détruit à la cuisson, on ne peut écarter qu’un test diagnostique sur un extrait cru puisse, à l’occasion, rester négatif alors que le patient réagit cliniquement au même poisson quand il est cuit.

On ne peut non plus écarter qu’une discordance entre le résultat du TC et celui du test in vitro ne résulte d’extraits provenant d’industriels différents, avec des méthodes et/ou des produits plus ou moins spécifiques.
Ainsi, une fréquence plus élevée de TC positifs pour l’anchois comparativement à d’autres poisons , contre une fréquence moindre en RAST .

Tests in vitro basés sur des extraits

Très classiquement, la morue est testée comme témoin d’une réactivité vis à vis des poissons en général. C’est l’espèce Gadus morhua qui entre dans la composition de ce test en CAP, ainsi que pour les mélanges alimentaires type « FX5 ».

C’est avec ce test morue que divers auteurs ont cherché un seuil de réactivité qui permettrait de s’affranchir de la pratique d’un TPO. Avec le CAP, Sampson a donné 20 kU/l comme niveau au-dessus duquel l’allergie était sûre à 95% au moins . Dans un travail ultérieur ce seuil a été présenté comme confirmé, mais dans cette cohorte prospective de 100 enfants, seulement 12 ont reçu un TPODA, de sorte que la majorité des diagnostics n’étaient pas établis comme l’aurait voulu l’objectif de l’étude .

D’autres auteurs ont trouvé des valeurs seuils s’écartant de celles de Sampson : par exemple 4,7 kU/l au lieu de 9,5 kU/l pour une VPP de 90% . Et la grande majorité des patients positifs en TPODA présentaient un CAP morue <6 kU/l dans une autre étude .

Il est donc peu utile de se fier à un résultat chiffré pour établir la réalité d’une allergie à la morue, et qui plus est aux poissons en général.

Il pourrait être plus pertinent, le cas échéant, de tester la réactivité à d’autres poissons que la morue si l’objectif est de contrôler la tolérance à certains poissons constatée par le patient : il est possible, en effet, de tester in vitro 28 espèces différentes de poissons en CAP au 01/01/2009.

Il faudra quand même se souvenir que les poissons représentent un large groupe taxonomique et que des écarts entre séquences de parvalbumines sont à attendre, avec à la clef une possible réactivité croisée moindre d’un poisson à un autre. De même que d’autres allergènes que des béta parvalbumines semblent souvent en cause dans les cas de réactions cliniques avec seulement 1 ou 2 poissons.

Tests in vitro basés sur des allergènes

Des allergènes recombinants ont été introduits dans la gamme des tests in vitro : d’abord la béta parvalbumine de carpe, rCyp c 1, puis celle de morue, rGad c 1. D’autres recombinants ont montré leur praticabilité .

Ces tests apportent-ils un avantage par rapport à ceux basés sur les extraits ?

La réponse est plutôt nuancée :
 rGad c 1 pourrait explorer une réactivité un peu différente de celle du test « F3 », car le premier est issu de Gadus callarias, tandis que le CAP classique morue provient d’un extrait de Gadus morhua. or, l’homologie entre les béta parvalbumines de ces 2 espèces est, de façon un peu inattendue, relativement faible : 64-67% entre Gad c 1 et Gad m 1, selon les isoformes de ces allergènes
 de même, rGad c 1 ne se superpose pas à rCyp c 1 (identité séquentielle de 68%), et des différences sont notamment observées au niveau de 2 des 3 épitopes entre ces deux allergènes . Aussi, un test négatif pour l’un de ces recombinants pourrait, à la limite, être positif avec l’autre chez un patient
 mais il semble que la réactivité des recombinants soit plus ou moins affectée par l’absence du ligand naturel, le calcium, lequel reste présent quand l’allergène est obtenu par simple purification à partir du produit naturel
 et des études manquent pour mieux établir que rCyp c 1 ou rGad c 1 ont une bonne pertinence clinique : rCyp c 1 n’a pas été testé en TC et a reçu une preuve de son allergénicité en libération d’histamine n’a été étudiée que chez 1 seul patient  ; rGad c 1 n’était positif en TC que chez 1 patient sur 10, contre 9/10 pour l’allergène naturel nGad c 1 .

Au total, du fait de la forte prévalence de réactivité pour les parvalbumines chez les patients allergiques au poisson, le gain apporté par rCyp c 1 et/ou rGad c 1 reste probablement limité, comparativement aux tests in vitro basés sur des extraits globaux de poissons.

Les œufs de poissons

Les œufs de divers poissons sont consommés, les plus réputés provenant de l’esturgeon (Acipenser sturio) : le caviar. D’ailleurs le terme « caviar » est protégé et ne peut être utilisé pour les oeufs d’autres poissons. Parfois les œufs sont colorés artificiellement : par exemple ceux de lump (Cyclopterus lumpus).

Quelques cas d’allergie à ces œufs ont été rapportés : oeufs de saumon , de truite , de cisco (Coregonus lavaretus) , de caviar beluga .

S’il a été rapporté une proportion non négligeable de tests in vitro positifs pour des œufs de lieu ou de saumon chez des sujets allergiques au poisson au Japon , ou une corrélation entre œufs de saumon et œufs de morue, également in vitro et au Japon , les observations cliniques plaident plutôt en faveur d’une certaine indépendance des réactivités : allergie est limitée à une seule sorte d’œufs, et ne s’accompagnant pas d’allergie aux poissons eux-mêmes.

Des tests de réactivité croisée ont parfois été entrepris : ils montrent des résultats disparates, tant entre différents œufs de poissons qu’entre ceux-ci et des extraits de poisson. Le nombre d’observations reste au total très faible et il est difficile de conclure. On ne peut, par ailleurs, exclure la possibilité d’une contamination des œufs par des protéines de poisson.

Les allergènes en cause dans les réactions aux œufs de poisson semblent correspondre à des vitellogénines , protéines de masse moléculaire élevée présentes dans les œufs à côté d’autres protéines comme les lipovitellines et phosvitines qui ne sont pas sans rappeler les protéines du jaune d’œuf de poule. Mais les auteurs qui ont testé une réactivité croisée œufs de poisson – jaune d’œuf de poule ont trouvé des résultats négatifs . Cliniquement, les patients ne sont pas allergiques non plus à l’œuf de poule.

[1] - Pascual CY, Reche M, Fiandor A, Valbuena T, Cuevas T, Martin-Esteban MM. Fish allergy in childhood. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2008;19:573-579
Fish and its derived products play an important role in human nutrition, but they may also be a potent food allergen. Fish can be an ingested, contact, and inhalant allergen. Gad c I, a Parvalbumin, the major allergen in codfish, is considered as fish and amphibian pan-allergen. Prevalence of fish allergy appears to depend on the amount of fish eaten in the local diet. In Europe, the highest consumption occurs in Scandinavian countries, Spain and Portugal. In Spain, fish is the third most frequent allergen in children under 2 yr of age after egg and cow's milk. An adverse reaction to fish may be of non-allergic origin, due to food contamination or newly formed toxic products, but the most frequent type of adverse reactions to fish are immunologic-mediated reactions (allergic reactions). Such allergic reactions may be both IgE-mediated and non-IgE-mediated. Most cases are IgE-mediated, due to ingestion or contact with fish or as a result of inhalation of cooking vapors. Some children develop non-IgE-mediated type allergies such as food protein induced enterocolitis syndrome. The clinical symptoms related to IgE-mediated fish allergy are most frequently acute urticaria and angioedema as well as mild oral symptoms, worsening of atopic dermatitis, respiratory symptoms such as rhinitis or asthma, and gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea and vomiting. Anaphylaxis may also occur. Among all the species studied, those from the Tunidae and Xiphiidae families appear to be the least allergenic.
[2] - Wild LG, Lehrer SB. Fish and shellfish allergy. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2005;5:74-79
Fish and shellfish are important in the American diet and economy. Nearly $27 billion are spent each year in the United States on seafood products. Fish and shellfish are also important causes of food hypersensitivity. In fact, shellfish constitute the number one cause of food allergy in the American adult. During the past decade, much has been learned about allergens in fish and shellfish. The major allergens responsible for cross-reactivity among distinct species of fish and amphibians are parvalbumins. The major shellfish allergen has been identified as tropomyosin. Many new and important potential cross-reacting allergens have been identified within the fish family and between shellfish, arachnids, and insects. Extensive research is currently underway for the development of safer and more effective methods for the diagnosis and management of fish and shellfish hypersensitivity.
[3] - Sabouraud D, Charles A, Fontaine JF, Deslées G, Lavaud F, Motte J. Food allergy in early chilhood: a study of 95 observations. EAACI 22th Congress, Paris, 7-11 June, 2003, Poster n°669
We report the observations of 95 infants who experienced one or multiple food allergies before 18 months of age, with the exception of cow's milk intolerance. Material and methods: Food allergy has been documented in most cases by convincing clinical history reported to positives skin pricks tests, specific IgE, and labial or oral provocation tests. Results: The sex ratio was 1.9 with 62 boys (65.3 %) and 33 girls (34.7 %). 87.4 %infants had an history of atopic dermatitis and 76% came from an atopic family. Fifty infants (37.3 %) were allergic to egg white-proteins, the main allergen, followed by peanut (43 cases, 32.1 %), fish (14 cases, 10.4 %), cashew nut (5 cases), pea (5 cases), lentils (4 cases), mustard (4 cases), hazelnut (3 cases), almond (2 cases), and for one case each rice, wheat, kiwi and pistachio. Sixty infants (63.15 %) were monoallergic while 25 (26.3 %) were allergic to 2 foods, 7 (7.3 %) to 3 foods and 2 (2.1 %) to 4 foods) Angioedema was the most frequent clinical symptom found in 49 cases (36.8 %), followed by generalised urticaria in 20 cases (15 cases), abdominal symptoms in 19 cases (14.2 %), a severe atopic dermatitis in 13 cases (9.8 %), larygeal oedema in 10 cases (7.5 %) as well as dyspnea, malaise, contact urticaria in some cases. The evolution depended on allergens (egg, peanut, cashew nut) and on the number of food allergies. Among 23 egg allergic children with a sufficient follow-up, 12 (56%)experienced asthma. This evolution was correlated to the degree of sensitisation and to the duration of egg intolerance. Among 11 peanut allergic children, 9 (81%) experienced asthma and so did 3 out of 4 cashew nut children. Among our 22 multiple food allergic children with sufficient follow-up, 15 (68%) experienced asthma and 8 other food allergies. Conclusion: This study demonstrates the seriousness of food allergy in infants before 18 months and the necessity for very early prevention.
[4] - Helbling A, McCants ML, Musmand JJ, Schwartz HJ, Lehrer SB. Immunopathogenesis of fish allergy: identification of fish-allergic adults by skin test and radioallergosorbent test. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1996;77:48-54
As the consumption of fish increases in the United States, the importance of allergic reactions to fish has become clear. Since most previous studies on fish allergy have focused on children reacting mainly to codfish, there is a need to investigate allergic reactions to other fish in adults. OBJECTIVE: To identify fish-allergic adults, and to assess cross-reactivity among different species of fish by RAST inhibition. METHODS: Thirty-nine individuals who reported fish allergy were selected for study; 32 (82%) were atopic as defined by two or more positive skin tests to common inhalant allergens and a history of allergic reactions and 33 (85%) experienced allergic symptoms within 30 minutes after ingesting fish. The most frequently reported symptoms were hives (69%), itching (69%), and wheezing/chest tightness (54%). Study subjects were skin tested with fish extracts and their sera assayed for IgE antibodies to different fish species. RESULTS: Thirty-six (92%) of the subjects tested had a positive skin test to at least one of 17 fish extracts tested; 9/35 (26%) reacted to all 17 extracts. Of the atopic (two or more positive skin tests to common inhalant allergens plus a personal and/or family history of allergy) and nonatopic fish-tolerant controls, 20/26 (77%) reacted by skin test to one or more fish extracts tested; the most prevalent positive reaction was to anchovy (73%). A significant correlation (P < .01) was observed between skin test reactivity of fish-allergic subjects to most fish extracts and fish RAST reactions. Radioallergosorbent inhibition testing demonstrated significant cross-reactivity among pollack, salmon, trout, and tuna; and between mackerel and anchovy. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that fish-allergic subjects may be clinically sensitive to more than one species of fish. Skin test reactivity to fish by itself is not an adequate criterion for the confirmation of clinically relevant fish allergy; consequently, fish-allergic subjects with positive skin tests to several fish species should exercise caution when eating fish until tolerance can be demonstrated by double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenge, at the patient's earliest convenience.
[6] - Greenberger PA, Patterson R, Tobin MC, Liotta JL, Roberts M. Lack of cross-reactivity between IgE to salmon and protamine sulfate. Am J Med Sci 1989;298:104-108
Immediate type-generalized reactions to protamine sulfate are uncommon but may be fatal. The mechanisms of severe or fatal reactions are unknown in most cases. One theory is that contaminating fish (salmon) proteins present in protamine solutions induce anaphylaxis in salmon-sensitive subjects. A second hypothesis is that protamine interacts with anti-salmon IgE to cause anaphylaxis. We assessed these hypotheses by establishing an indirect amplified enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for IgE to salmon. Sera obtained from two subjects anaphylactically sensitive to salmon demonstrated high binding to salmon that was not inhibited by preincubation of sera with 500 or 1000 micrograms of protamine or Aspergillus fumigatus. Serum from a patient who experienced anaphylactic shock from protamine was indistinguishable from control sera in the ELISA for IgE to salmon. Anti-protamine IgE could not be demonstrated in separate experiments. The assays prove that 1) serum IgE to salmon is not inhibited by protamine a nd 2) serum from a patient experiencing a severe reaction to protamine did not contain IgE to salmon or protamine. The experiments do not support the notion that there is cross-reactivity between IgE to salmon and protamine sulfate in the cases evaluated
[7] - Mark BJ, Beaty AD, Slavin RG. Are fish oil supplements safe in finned fish-allergic patients ? Allergy Asthma Proc 2008;29:528-529
Fish oil supplements are popular alternative medicines. Many manufacturers label their products with the warning „avoid this product if you are allergic to fish.‰ The objective of this study was to determine if finned fish (FF)-allergic patients could safely tolerate fish oil supplements. Six FF-sensitive subjects as determined by history and skin testing were selected. They were skin tested with two different fish oil supplements and given an oral challenge of each supplement 1 hour apart. Vital signs were measured at baseline and at 20-minute intervals after each challenge. Spirometry was measured at baseline and 1 hour after each challenge. Six of six patients with positive skin tests to at least one FF had negative skin tests to both fish oil supplements. All six subjects then had negative oral challenges to both supplements. In this pilot study, FF-sensitive patients tolerated fish oil supplements.
[8] - Egaas E, Sletten G. Effectivity of an industrial hydrolysis process in removing allergenic protein from fish. Allergy 2007;62(suppl. 83):328-329
Background: A series of extensively boiled, pH- and enzyme- treated extracts from wild fish has been produced by a Norwegian manufacturer to be sold as a substitute flavour for beef, chicken and pork. Fish is one of the most frequent elicitors of IgE-mediated type I food allergy and is generally accepted to be among the foods most commonly inducing severe food anaphylaxis. The European Union has made the labelling of foods containing ingredients which may cause allergies or intolerances in consumers mandatory (Commision Directive 2003/89/EC). Common food allergens are listed in the Directive's Annex IIIa, which includes fish or products derived from fish. However, products may be exempted from this regulation if it has been scientifically established that the ingredients cannot induce allergic reactions. Thus, if it can be documented that the fish hydrolysates have been sufficiently processed to destroy the allergenic protein, they may be safely sold as replacements for conventional meat extracts in Europa, USA and other markets, including regions threatened by BSE and avian flu and without fish being mentioned on the label. Methods: Five distinct fish hydrolysate products were made from fish which has been boiled and treated with hydrochloric acid to pH 4, reboiled, microfiltered and enzymatically treated with neutrase. The pH was adjusted to inactivate enzymes and these water-soluble products were concentrated by evaporation to approx. 70% dry matter. The immunogenicity of the different products were measured with immunoblot and sandwich ELISA, using a rabbit anti-cod parvalbumin polyclonal antibody. Residual allergenicity in the products may be demonstrated by binding of fish-specific IgE in sera from fish-allergic patients to proteins/peptides product. This was examined with immunoblot and ELISA, detected by means of a rabbit anti-human IgE polyclonal antibody. Results and Discussion: Immunoblot using the anti-parvalbumin antibody, showed a faint band corresponding to parvalbumin (approx. 12 kDa) in two of the products, suggesting incomplete hydrolysis. Immunoblots using a fish-allergic serum pool showed no binding. An indirect ELISA, using the product as coat antigen, was carried out on sera from fish-allergic subjects. Residual IgE-binding activity from 4 of the 5 products was seen in two of nine sera, suggesting the presence of some allergenic peptides.
[9] - Pascual CY, Reche M, Fiandor A, Valbuena T, Cuevas T, Martin-Esteban MM. Fish allergy in childhood. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2008;19:573-579
Fish and its derived products play an important role in human nutrition, but they may also be a potent food allergen. Fish can be an ingested, contact, and inhalant allergen. Gad c I, a Parvalbumin, the major allergen in codfish, is considered as fish and amphibian pan-allergen. Prevalence of fish allergy appears to depend on the amount of fish eaten in the local diet. In Europe, the highest consumption occurs in Scandinavian countries, Spain and Portugal. In Spain, fish is the third most frequent allergen in children under 2 yr of age after egg and cow's milk. An adverse reaction to fish may be of non-allergic origin, due to food contamination or newly formed toxic products, but the most frequent type of adverse reactions to fish are immunologic-mediated reactions (allergic reactions). Such allergic reactions may be both IgE-mediated and non-IgE-mediated. Most cases are IgE-mediated, due to ingestion or contact with fish or as a result of inhalation of cooking vapors. Some children develop non-IgE-mediated type allergies such as food protein induced enterocolitis syndrome. The clinical symptoms related to IgE-mediated fish allergy are most frequently acute urticaria and angioedema as well as mild oral symptoms, worsening of atopic dermatitis, respiratory symptoms such as rhinitis or asthma, and gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea and vomiting. Anaphylaxis may also occur. Among all the species studied, those from the Tunidae and Xiphiidae families appear to be the least allergenic.
[10] - Crespo JF, Pascual C, Dominguez C, Ojeda I, Munoz FM, Esteban MM. Allergic reactions associated with airborne fish particles in IgE-mediated fish hypersensitive patients. Allergy 1995;50:257-261
We evaluated the clinical characteristics found in 21 children who showed allergic reactions upon incidental inhalation of fish odors or fumes, from 197 diagnosed with IgE-mediated fish hypersensitivity. Allergic reactions to fish via ingestion began in most patients (86%) within the first 24 months of life. The vast majority (19/21) of patients showed cutaneous symptoms, either alone or, less frequently, associated with other clinical manifestations. Hake and flounder were the species of fish most frequently implicated in eliciting clinical manifestations upon ingestion. After diagnosis, all these patients were placed on a strict fish-avoidance diet. During this period of avoidance, patients reported allergic reactions (mean age 7 years) after incidental exposure to airborne fish odors or fumes. Clinical manifestations through inhalation were respiratory (mainly wheezing) in 12 patients and cutaneous (mainly urticaria) in nine patients. Nineteen of 21 patients reported three or more episodes upon exposure to fish aerosols; in most cases, these episodes occurred at home when other people were eating fish. In conclusion, incidental inhalation of fish odors or fumes could play an important role in accidental and unknown encounters with fish in children on fish-avoidance diets for fish IgE-mediated hypersensitivity. Such exposures could elicit clinical symptoms and could have some effect in delaying the development of tolerance.
[12] - Jeebhay MF, Robins T, Swoboda I, Baatjies R, Balic N, Spitzauer S, et al. Relationship between in vivo and in vitro markers of IgE reactivity in relation to work-related allergic symptoms among seafood processing workers. EAACI 23th Congress, Amsterdam, 12-16 June, 2004, Poster n°1158
Background: Fish and fish products are an important cause of IgE-mediated allergy in the domestic and occupational setting. Parvalbumins, small calcium-binding muscle proteins, have been identified as the major cross-reactive fish allergen. This study aimed to determine in a population of seafood processing workers, the association between work-related allergic symptoms, skin prick test (SPT) to fish extract, specific IgE levels to fish and recombinant parvalbumin. METHODS: A cross-sectional study of 626 employed workers involved in fish canning (pilchard), fishmeal processing (anchovy) and rock-lobster processing. A modified ECRHS questionnaire and methacholine challenge tests were performed using ATS guidelines. SPT used common airborne allergens (ALK), fresh fish and rock lobster extracts. Serum specific IgE to carp and recombinant parvalbumin were quantified by ELISA. RESULTS: The average age was 36 years, 64% were women and 51% current smokers. The prevalence of atopy (positive SPT to “1 common aeroallergen) was 37%. Common work-related symptoms were ocular-nasal (27%), asthma (15%) and skin symptoms (13%). SPT revealed 3% of workers sensitised to either pilchard or anchovy (6% to “1 fish species) and 2% to rock lobster. Furthermore, 22% of workers demonstrated NSBH (PC20 £8 mg/ml). Sensitisation to fish on SPT was significantly associated with self-reported allergy to seafood (OR=3.2; CI: 1.1-8.8; p=0.027) and work-related ocular-nasal symptoms (OR=2.1; CI: 1.1-4.2; p=0.034). The prevalence of elevated IgE (defined as 1.5 times the negative control) to recombinant parvalbumin was 24% and to carp 26 %. Among the 32 workers with positive SPT to fish, 16% had elevated IgE levels to parvalbumin and 19% to carp. There was a significant degree of concordance (kappa=0.35; p<0.001) between carp and parvalbumin. A borderline association (OR=4.1; CI: 0.9-18.6; p=0.068) was demonstrated between elevated IgE levels to parvalbumin and fish allergic asthma (positive SPT to any fish and NSBH). CONCLUSION: Among fish processors SPT using fresh fish extracts appear to be reliable predictors of self-reported seafood allergy and work- related ocular-nasal allergic symptoms. Furthermore, the presence of elevated IgE antibody levels to recombinant parvalbumin could possibly be used as a marker for fish allergic asthma.
[16] - Kobayashi A, Tanaka H, Hamada Y, Ishizaki S, Nagashima Y, Shiomi K. Comparison of allergenicity and allergens between fish white and dark muscles. Allergy 2006;61:357-363
BACKGROUND: Fish is one of the most frequent causes of immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated food allergy. Although the fish dark muscle is often ingested with the white muscle, no information about its allergenicity and allergens is available . METHODS: Heated extracts were prepared from both white and dark muscles of five species of fish and examined for reactivity with IgE in fish-allergic patients by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and for allergens by immunoblotting. Cloning of cDNAs encoding parvalbumins was performed by rapid amplification cDNA ends. Parvalbumin contents in both white and dark muscles were determined by ELISA using antiserum against mackerel parvalbumin . RESULTS: Patient sera were less reactive to the heated extract from the dark muscle than to that from the white muscle. A prominent IgE-reactive protein of 12 kDa, which was detected in both white and dark muscles, was identified as parvalbumin. Molecular cloning experiments revealed that the same parvalbumin molecule is contained in both white and dark muscles of either horse mackerel or Pacific mackerel. Parvalbumin contents were four to eight times lower in the dark muscle than in the white muscle . CONCLUSIONS: The fish dark muscle is less allergenic than the white muscle, because the same allergen molecule (parvalbumin) is contained at much lower levels in the dark muscle than in the white muscle. Thus, the dark muscle is less implicated in fish allergy than the white muscle.
[17] - Kuehn A, Felten P, Hilger C, Hentges F. Allergic reaction to tuna fish. IgE sensitisation to a 40kDa protein distinct from parvalbumin. EAACI 25th Congress, Vienna, 10-14 June, 2006, Poster n°1516
Background: Allergy to fish is a common cause of severe IgE-mediated food reactions. Parvalbumin a Ca++ binding protein of white muscle tissue has been defined as the major fish allergen. The sera of fish-allergic patients generally react with parvalbumins of several species. However the parvalbumin content of some fish tissues for instance the red muscle tissue of tuna has been found to very low. We observed a patient allergic to tuna fish (urticaria, Quinke edema, hypotension), whose skin tests with commercial fish extracts but also serum IgE to tuna were found to be negative. However skin tests with fresh tuna fish were positive. This study was undertaken to define the responsible allergen present in Yellofin tuna (Thunnus albacares). Methods: Protein extracts were prepared from salmon, red and white muscle tissues of tuna fish and subjected to SDS-PAGE. IgE immunoblots were performed with the serum of the index patient. The sera of four patients known to be allergic to several fish species (cod and salmon) and one patient who had previously been shown to be predominantly sensitized to tuna fish were also analyzed. Results: The IgE of 4 broadly fish-allergic patients recognized in salmon and white tuna muscle extract a protein band at about 12 kDa corresponding to parvalbumin, but they did not detect a protein band at the parvalbumin level in red muscle tuna tissue. One of them visualized an additional band at 40 kDa. The index patient reacted only with a single 40 kDa protein in red and white tuna muscle. The patient with predominantly tuna positive specific IgE reacted with parvalbumin and in addition with the same 40 kDa band of red and white tuna muscle. Conclusion: We describe an allergic patient uniquely sensitized to a 40 kDa protein most strongly present in white tuna muscle. Although sensitisation to allergens of higher molecular weight has been previously described, the overall actual focus is almost exclusively on parvalbumins. This could lead to absence of correct clinical diagnosis in patients only sensitized to fish allergens differing from parvalbumins, because these allergies seem not to be picked up by actual skin - but also in vitro tests.
[19] - Lim DL, Neo KH, Yi FC, Chua KY, Goh DLM, Shek LPC, et al. Parvalbumin – the major tropical fish allergen. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2008;19:399-407
Fish allergy is common in countries where consumption is high. Asian nations are amongst the world's largest consumers of fish but the allergen profiles of tropical fish are unknown. This study sought to evaluate the allergenicity of four commonly consumed tropical fish, the threadfin (Polynemus indicus), Indian anchovy (Stolephorus indicus), pomfret (Pampus chinensis) and tengirri (Scomberomorus guttatus). Immunoglobulin E (IgE) cross-reactivity with parvalbumin of cod fish (Gad c 1), the major fish allergen, was also studied. Detection of tropical fish and cod specific-IgE was performed by UniCap assay, and skin prick tests were also carried out. The IgE-binding components of tropical fish were identified using IgE immunoblot techniques, and cross-reactivity with Gad c 1 was assessed by ELISA inhibition and IgE immunoblot inhibition. Clinically, nine of 10 patients studied were allergic to multiple fish. All patients exhibited detectable specific-IgE to cod fish (10 of 10 skin prick test positive, eight of 10 UniCap assay positive) despite lack of previous exposure. The major allergen of the four tropical fish was the 12-kDa parvalbumin. IgE cross-reactivity of these allergens to Gad c 1 was observed to be moderate to high in the tropical fish studied. Parvalbumins are the major allergens in commonly consumed tropical fish. They are cross-reactive with each other as well as with Gad c 1. Commercial tests for cod fish appear to be sufficient for the detection of tropical fish specific-IgE.
[20] - Das Dores S, Chopin C, Romano A, Galland-Irmouli AV, Quaratino D, Pascual C, et al. IgE-binding and cross-reactivity of a new 41 kDa allergen of codfish. Allergy 2002;57(Suppl. 72):84-87
BACKGROUND: A 41-kDa IgE-reactive protein (p41) was purified from raw cod extract. This protein is homologous to an aldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase (APDH). The present study aims to evaluate the IgE-binding and the cross-reactivity of this protein in 13 patients allergic to codfish . METHODS: IgE binding of sera from 13 patients allergic to codfish was tested by Sepharose RIA and by Western blot . RESULTS: Among the 13 patients, only 4 had specific IgE to APDH detected by APDH-Sepharose RIA. The two patients who had the highest level of specific IgE to human APDH also had a class 5-6 CAP-RAST IgE level to codfish, but two other patients with a class 5 had a negative APDH-Sepharose IgE-RIA. Relative content of APDH was higher in extracts of commercial nonfrozen fish, compared to pre rigor mortis, post rigor mortis and frozen commercial codfish. A high homology of codfish APDH was found with the corresponding human enzyme. A significant inhibition of APDH-Sepharose by human and, to a lesser extent, by rabbit APDH was observed. Western blot of APDH codfish extract showed two bands at 41 and 36 kDa, respectively . CONCLUSIONS: We have characterized a new allergen from codfish, which had a high level of homology in different species. The p41 relative content of extracts from nonfrozen codfish was higher than in the other samples assessed.
[22] - Das Dores S, Chopin C, Villaume C, Fleurence J, Guéant JL. A new oligomeric parvalbumin allergen of Atlantic cod (Gad mI) encoded by a gene distinct from that of Gad cI. Allergy 2002;57(Suppl. 72):79-83
BACKGROUND: The major allergen of Baltic cod (Gadus callarias) is a 12.3-kDa parvalbumin with two calcium-binding sites corresponding to EF-hand motifs. Our group found a 24-kDa IgE-reactive band that was also recognized by a monoclonal antiparvalbumin antibody in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua). Our purpose was to purify and to determine the cDNA deduced sequence of this new cod allergen . METHODS: Proteins from pre rigor mortis Atlantic cod were separated by gel filtration and the eluted peaks were analysed by SDS-PAGE and Western blotting with sera of sensitized patients and with antiparvalbumin. Protein bands were microsequenced, RNA transcripts were amplified by reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) using primer combinations overlapping the open reading frame . RESULTS: Four IgE and antiparvalbumin reactive proteins(12.5, 24, 38 and 51 kDa) were detected in gel filtration eluate. The cDNA deduced sequence of the 24 kDa protein had 109 amino acid residues with a molecular weight of 11.5 kDa and a theoretical pI of 4.34. The 24 kDa band corresponded therefore to a dimer of a beta-parvalbumin. Its homology was higher with Sal sI than with Gad cI. This new allergen was named Gad mI . CONCLUSION: We have characterized a new parvalbumin allergen in Gadus morhua. This protein formed oligomers in native and in reducing conditions. Gad mI and Gad cI may correspond to two distinct genes of Gadus species.
[23] - Dory D, Chopin C, Aimone-Gastin I, Guéant JL, Guérin L, Sainte-Laudy J, et al. Recognition of an extensive range of IgE-reactive proteins in cod extract. Allergy 1998;53:42-50
Allergy to fish is one of the most common food allergies. Gad c 1 is the only fish allergen which has been purified and characterized. Other allergens have been detected by Western blot in cod extracts. We have now improved the Western-blot procedure in order to characterize fish IgE-reactive proteins from extracts prepared under different conditions: pre-rigor mortis and post-rigor mortis, EDTA addition or not, and DEAE ion-exchange chromatography. Several IgE-reactive protein bands have been identified over a wide molecular-weight range. In particular, the 104- and 130-kDa IgE-reactive protein bands were detected. These new bands may correspond to aggregates, as EDTA increased the relative amount of the 60-, 67-, 104-, and 130-kDa IgE-reactive protein bands in Western blot. All these bands were also detected by antiparvalbumin monoclonal antibody, specific to the first calcium-binding site. The longer period of storage increased the relative amounts of the 41-, 80-, 104-, and 130-kDa IgE-reactive protein bands. The 18-kDa band was detected only in fish stored for several days. In conclusion, we have described IgE-reactive protein bands over a wide molecular-weight range (12-130 kDa) in Western blot of cod extract, and shown that EDTA and storage conditions may influence the relative distribution of IgE-reactive protein bands.
[24] - Mata E, Favier C, Moneret-Vautrin DA, Nicolas JP, Han Ching L, Guéant JL. Surimi and native codfish contain a common allergen identified as a 63-kDa protein. Allergy 1994;49:442-447
We have compared the allergenicity of codfish and surimi (prepared from codfish) by skin testing, specific IgE-RIA, and leukocyte histamine release (LHR) in six fish-allergic patients. Prick tests were positive for codfish and, to a lesser extent, surimi. The percentages of labeled anti-IgE bound to surimi-Sepharose were 1.55 +/- 0.19% and 3-6% with control and patient sera, respectively. Inhibition of the surimi protein-Sepharose IgE-RIA was greatest (80%) at protein concentrations of 13.4 and 408.5 micrograms/ml for codfish and surimi extract, respectively. The allergenic protein was isolated by gel filtration and subjected to SDS-PAGE. The eluate from codfish contained several proteins ranging from 13 to 63 kDa, while the eluate from surimi contained a single 63-kDa protein. It was concluded that surimi contained a single allergenic protein.
[25] - Wild LG, Lehrer SB. Fish and shellfish allergy. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2005;5:74-79
Fish and shellfish are important in the American diet and economy. Nearly $27 billion are spent each year in the United States on seafood products. Fish and shellfish are also important causes of food hypersensitivity. In fact, shellfish constitute the number one cause of food allergy in the American adult. During the past decade, much has been learned about allergens in fish and shellfish. The major allergens responsible for cross-reactivity among distinct species of fish and amphibians are parvalbumins. The major shellfish allergen has been identified as tropomyosin. Many new and important potential cross-reacting allergens have been identified within the fish family and between shellfish, arachnids, and insects. Extensive research is currently underway for the development of safer and more effective methods for the diagnosis and management of fish and shellfish hypersensitivity.
[26] - Pepe T, Trotta M, Marco ID, Anastasio A, Bautista JM, Cortesi ML. Fish Species Identification in Surimi-Based Products. J Agric Food Chem 2007;55:3681-3685
Whole fish morphologically identified as belonging to Theragra chalcogramma, Merluccius merluccius, Merluccius hubbsi, and Merluccius capensis and 19 fish products commercialized as surimi with different commercial brands and labeled as T. chalcogramma were analyzed by direct sequence analysis of the cytochrome b gene. A phylogenetic analysis of surimi products was performed as well. Results demonstrated that mislabeling is a large-scale phenomenon, since 84.2% of surimi-based fish products sold as T. chalcogramma (16/19) were prepared with species different from the one declared. In fact, only three samples (samples 15-17) were found to belong to T. chalcogramma. In the remaining samples, Merluccidae (samples 4-14), Gadidae (samples 18 and 19), Sparidae (sample 1), and Pomacentridae (samples 2 and 3) families were detected. A phylogenetic tree was constructed, and the bootstrap value was calculated. According to this methodology, 11 samples were grouped in the same clade as Merluccius spp. Keywords: Surimi; Gadiformes; cytochrome b gene; PCR; direct sequencing; Theragra chalcogramma.
[27] - Hamada Y, Nagashima Y, Shiomi K. Identification of collagen as a new fish allergen. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2001;65:285-291
This study was intended to identify a high molecular weight allergen that had been detected in fish. Analyses by ELISA of five protein fractions prepared from bigeye tuna muscle showed that the high molecular weight allergen was contained in the myostromal protein fraction. Based on the results of SDS-PAGE, immunoblotting and amino acid analysis of the myostromal protein fraction, the high molecular weight allergen was judged to be collagen. Five of the eight patient sera used were found to react to the bigeye tuna collagen. In competitive ELISA inhibition experiments, the bigeye tuna collagen almost completely inhibited the IgE reactivity to the heated extracts from five species of fish, suggesting that collagen is commonly allergic regardless of fish species. However, no antigenic cross-reactivity was observed between collagens from fish and other animals.
[28] - Hamada Y, Nagashima Y, Shiomi K, Shimojo N, Kohno Y, Shibata R, et al. Reactivity of IgE in fish-allergic patients to fish muscle collagen. Allergol Int 2003;52:139-148
In addition to parvalbumin, the well-known major allergen in fish, collagen was recently identified as a new allergen in the muscle of bigeye tuna and in the skin of several species of fish. Collagen was purified from the white muscle of five species of fish (Japanese eel, alfonsin, mackerel, skipjack and bigeye tuna). The IgE reactivities to collagen and parvalbumin were examined by ELISA, whereas antigenic cross-reactivity among fish muscle collagens was investigated by ELISA inhibition experiments. When 15 sera from fish-allergic patients were subjected to ELISA using bigeye tuna collagen and parvalbumin, 10 sera reacted only to parvalbumin, two reacted only to collagen, two reacted to both collagen and parvalbumin and one reacted to neither collagen nor parvalbumin. The sera containing specific IgE to bigeye tuna collagen also reacted to collagens from the other four species of fish. In the ELISA inhibition experiments, cross-reactivity among the collagens from five species of fish was suggested.
[29] - Torres Borrego J, Martinez Cuevas JF, Tejero Garcia J. [Cross reactivity between fish and shellfish]. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr) 2003;31:146-151
In Spain, fish allergy represents 18 % of all cases of food allergy in children while reactions caused by crustacea and mollusks account for 3.8 % and 1.6 % respectively. Cross-reactivity is defined as the recognition of distinct antigens by the same IgE antibody, demonstrable by in vivo and in vitro tests, which clinically manifests as reactions caused by antigens homologous to different species. Subclinical sensitization can also occur, giving rise to patients sensitized to particular fish or shellfish but who do not present symptoms on consumption.Cod and shrimp have been the models used to study allergy to fish and crustacea respectively. The major allergens responsible for cross-reactivity among distinct species of fish and amphibians are proteins that control calcium flow in the muscular sarcoplasm of these animals, called parvalbumins, with a molecular weight of approximately 12 kD and an isoelectric point of 4.75, resistant to the action of heat and enzymatic digestion. Recently, recombinant carp parvalbumin has been reproduced, confirming that this allergen contains 70 % of the IgE epitopes present in natural extract of cod, tuna and salmon, which makes it a valid tool in the diagnosis of patients with fish allergy. Moreover, this recombinant allergen could constitute the basis for the development of immunotherapy against food allergy.In the case of shellfish, a non-taxonomic group that includes crustacea and mollusks, the major allergen is tropomyosin, an essential protein in muscle contraction both in invertebrates and vertebrates. In invertebrates, tropomyosins, which have a molecular weight of between 38 and 41 kD, show great homology in their amino acid sequence and are the panallergens responsible for cross-reactions between crustacea, insects, mites, nematodes, and different classes of mollusks.It is estimated that 50 % of individuals allergic to some type of fish are at risk for reacting to a second species, while those allergic to some type of crustacea present a risk of 75 % due to the greater similarity among tropomyosins than among parvalbumins. In addition, up to 40 % of patients sensitized to one or more fish do not present symptoms on consuming other species, the best tolerated of which belong to the Scombroidea family (which includes tuna).
[30] - Wild LG, Lehrer SB. Fish and shellfish allergy. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2005;5:74-79
Fish and shellfish are important in the American diet and economy. Nearly $27 billion are spent each year in the United States on seafood products. Fish and shellfish are also important causes of food hypersensitivity. In fact, shellfish constitute the number one cause of food allergy in the American adult. During the past decade, much has been learned about allergens in fish and shellfish. The major allergens responsible for cross-reactivity among distinct species of fish and amphibians are parvalbumins. The major shellfish allergen has been identified as tropomyosin. Many new and important potential cross-reacting allergens have been identified within the fish family and between shellfish, arachnids, and insects. Extensive research is currently underway for the development of safer and more effective methods for the diagnosis and management of fish and shellfish hypersensitivity.
[31] - Helbling A, Haydel R Jr, McCants ML, Musmand JJ, El-Dahr J, Lehrer SB. Fish allergy: is cross-reactivity among fish species relevant? Double-blind placebo-controlled food challenge studies of fish allergic adults. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1999;83:517-523
Allergic reactions to fish are a common cause of food allergy in many areas of the world where fish is a major source of protein. Although different species of fish may be consumed, possible cross-reactivity has received limited investigation. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to assess potential cross-reactivity to different species of fish species using double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenges (DBPCFC) in fish-allergic adults and to compare skin test and RAST reactivity with the challenge response. METHODS: Nine skin prick test and/or RAST-positive adult individuals with histories of an immediate-type reaction following fish ingestion were challenged with different fish species using double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenge. RESULTS: Of a total of 19 double-blind, placebo-controlled fish challenges performed, 14 challenges (74%) resulted in the induction of objective signs that were consistent with an IgE-mediated response. The most common sign observed was emesis (37%); the most prevalent subjective symptoms reported were compatible with the oral allergy syndrome (84%). Three subjects reacted to at least three fish species and one subject reacted to two fish species tested. In regard to the positive challenges, predictive accuracy of skin prick test and RAST was 84% and 78%, respectively. CONCLUSION: Our results indicate that clinically relevant cross-reactivity among various species of fish may exist. Advising fish-allergic subjects to avoid all fish species should be emphasized until a species can be proven safe to eat by provocative challenge.
[32] - Bernhisel-Broadbent J, Scanlon SM, Sampson HA. Fish hypersensitivity. I. In vitro and oral challenge results in fish-allergic patients. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1992;89:730-737
The purpose of this study was to determine whether patients allergic to one fish species can safely eat other fish species. Eleven atopic, food-allergic children and young adults with histories consistent with IgE-mediated fish hypersensitivity were skin prick tested to 10 fish species. Skin prick tests (SPTs) were positive to all 10 fish in eight of the 11 patients, and the remaining three patients had at least two positive fish SPTs. Positive oral challenges occurred to only one fish in seven of the patients, to two fish species in one patient, and to three fish species in two patients. One patient did not react to any of the fish tested. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and immunoblot analyses were performed on raw and cooked protein extracts from nine of the 10 fish species used in SPTs. Several protein bands in the raw-fish extracts appeared to denature with cooking and form high molecular weight conglomerates. Immunoblot analyses with sera from documented fish-allergic patients demonstrated specific IgE binding to protein bands from fish to which patients were not clinically allergic, as determined by oral challenge. In ELISA-inhibition assays, the concentration of fish antigen required to achieve 50% inhibition was similar for fish to which the patients were clinically allergic as compared to fish to which they were clinically tolerant. SPT and in vitro evidence of IgE-specific cross-reactivity does not necessarily correlate with symptomatic fish allergy. In addition, these fish-hypersensitive patients were able to consume one or more other fish species without adverse allergic reactions.
[33] - Asero R, Mistrello G, Roncarolo D, Casarini M, Falagiani P. True monosensitivity to a tropical sole. Allergy 1999;54:1228-1229
All fish species examined contain a 12 kDa parvalbumin analogous to Gad c 1, the major cod allergen, and as a consequence most allergic patients report clinical reactivity to several fish. In addition, those who are clinically sensitive only to specific fish are generally positive in skin prick tests (SPT) and RAST with tolerated species. Although symptoms of fish allergy are generally systemic, this report describes an unusual case of immediate contact allergy induced by a single fish species. A 28 yr old man experienced laryngeal oedema immediately after eating a small piece of cooked tropical sole (Solea senegalensis). The patient had consumed the fish regularly during the past without any problem. The tropical sole induced an extremely strong skin reaction in SPT whereas no reactivity was observed with other fish species or Anisakis simplex. IgE specific to tropical sole were detected by immunoblot and RAST analyses. No cross reactivity was observed against other fish species and the patient was able to tolerate open oral provocations with cod, lemon sole and swordfish. This is one of the first cases of fish allergy characterized by clinical and immunological monosensitivity. Immunoblot analysis suggested that the causative allergen is distinct from Gad c 1.
[35] - Kelso JM, Jones RT, Yunginger JW. Monospecific allergy to swordfish. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1996;77:227-228
BACKGROUND: Fish allergy is a relatively common and potentially fatal condition. Most fish allergic subjects are allergic to multiple fish species. We encountered a patient clinically allergic only to swordfish . OBJECTIVE: To characterize the in vivo and in vitro IgE antibody responsiveness of this patient solely allergic to swordfish . METHODS: Prick skin tests, as well as immunoassay and protein immunoblotting for IgE antibody were performed using commercial fish extracts and fresh swordfish. A more typical multiple fish-allergic subject and a subject not allergic to food were also studied for comparison . RESULTS: The multiple fish-allergic subject demonstrated IgE antibody to a 13-kD protein in all fish tested (probably Gad c 1 and its analogues in other fish). The swordfish-allergic subject did not recognize this 13-kD band but did demonstrate IgE directed against a 25-kD band only in swordfish. The negative control showed no IgE binding to either the 13 or 25 kD bands . CONCLUSIONS: It is possible to be allergic to a single fish species, such as swordfish, and such monospecific allergy may be due to the presence of species-specific allergens, in this case a 25-kD allergen in swordfish.
[36] - Sierra ESM, Pilar Barranco PB, Pereira MJPM, Rodríguez Álvarez MRA, Belver MTBM, Pascual CY, et al. Oral allergy syndrome by grouper. EAACI 22th Congress, Paris, 7-11 June, 2003, Poster n°705
The grouper is a fish (Epinephelus guaza) of the family of Serranus. In spite of its frequent consumption, it has not been described like cause of allergic reactions. We present the case of a 32 year-old woman with a personal history of rhinoconjunctivitis, asthma and bird-egg syndrome of several years of evolution, which reports pharingeal pruritus and disconfort with the two last ingestions of grouper to the plate, with tolerance to the rest of fish. Methods and Results: Test "in vivo": skin prick test (Leti Laboratory and Inmunoallergy Laboratory of La Paz Hospital) with grouper and hake positive (> 3x3 mm); with sole, doryfish, tuna, anchovy, codfish, mussel, shrimp, squid and anisakis negative.Skin prick-prick test with grouper positive. Double-blind placebo-controlled grouper challenges (DBPCFC) were performed, evoking referred symptoms of the patient. Test "in vitro": total IgE antibodies (IMX System Abbott Laboratory) 92 KU/L; specific IgE antibodies (CAP-Pharmacia): sardine, codfish, sole and doryfish <0.35 KU/L; hake 0.365 KU/L and grouper (RAST) <0.35 KU/L. SDS-PAGE, Inmunoblot:The patient's serum recognizes so much in hake as in grouper a low molecular weight band that would correspond with the parvoalbumins, recognizing of more specific form those of the grouper one. In the Inmunoblot of IEF, the structural diference between the grouper's parvoalbumin and the hake's is observed, proving in the binding of specific IgE antibodies to the parvoalbumins. CONCLUSION: 1. We present the first descibed case of clinic monosensitization to grouper with tolerance to the rest of fish.2. Inmunoblot could be a decisive method of detection of specific IgE antibodies in the diagnosis of sensitization that could happen unnoticed when not having commercial test. 3. This case confirm that DBPCFC is the gold standard test for the confirmation of any history of an adverse reaction to a food.
[38] - Bernhisel-Broadbent J, Scanlon SM, Sampson HA. Fish hypersensitivity. I. In vitro and oral challenge results in fish-allergic patients. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1992;89:730-737
The purpose of this study was to determine whether patients allergic to one fish species can safely eat other fish species. Eleven atopic, food-allergic children and young adults with histories consistent with IgE-mediated fish hypersensitivity were skin prick tested to 10 fish species. Skin prick tests (SPTs) were positive to all 10 fish in eight of the 11 patients, and the remaining three patients had at least two positive fish SPTs. Positive oral challenges occurred to only one fish in seven of the patients, to two fish species in one patient, and to three fish species in two patients. One patient did not react to any of the fish tested. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and immunoblot analyses were performed on raw and cooked protein extracts from nine of the 10 fish species used in SPTs. Several protein bands in the raw-fish extracts appeared to denature with cooking and form high molecular weight conglomerates. Immunoblot analyses with sera from documented fish-allergic patients demonstrated specific IgE binding to protein bands from fish to which patients were not clinically allergic, as determined by oral challenge. In ELISA-inhibition assays, the concentration of fish antigen required to achieve 50% inhibition was similar for fish to which the patients were clinically allergic as compared to fish to which they were clinically tolerant. SPT and in vitro evidence of IgE-specific cross-reactivity does not necessarily correlate with symptomatic fish allergy. In addition, these fish-hypersensitive patients were able to consume one or more other fish species without adverse allergic reactions.
[39] - Kondo Y, Komatsubara R, Nakajima Y, Kawamura M, Kakami M, Tsuge I, et al. Parvalbumin was Not Responsible for the Cross-Reactivity between Tuna and Marlin: A Case Report. AAAAI 62nd Annual Meeting, Miami, 3-7 March 2006, Poster n°200
RATIONALE: Fish is a common food allergen in Japan and may cause fatal anaphylactic reactions. Subjects with fish allergy are usually allergic to multiple fish species. As the reason for cross-reactivity to a large number of fish species, the major allergen in fish is parvalbumin and this protein is present in the muscle of a variety of fish species. We encountered a patient with anaphylactic reaction to marlin. She has clinical allergic to tuna only and ate many kinds of fish other than tuna in the past without any problem. However, thirty minutes after eating cooked marlin for the first time, she had a severe anaphylactic reaction. We assessed cross-reactivity between the two fish species, tuna and marlin, which belong to different families on taxonomy METHODS: Using the patient sera, an ELISA inhibition study was performed to examine the cross-reactivity between tuna and marlin. Then, we attempted to identify the involved allergen by immunoblot inhibition study RESULTS: On ELISA inhibition study, IgE-binding to tuna and marlin were inhibited by each other. However, anisakis did not inhibit either fish extract. A high molecular weight protein was involved in IgE competition between two on immunoblot study CONCLUSIONS: There was a cross-reactivity between tuna and marlin A higher molecular weight protein but not parvalbumin seems to be responsible for cross-reactivity in this case.
[40] - Kuehn A, Felten P, Hilger C, Hentges F. Allergic reaction to tuna fish. IgE sensitisation to a 40kDa protein distinct from parvalbumin. EAACI 25th Congress, Vienna, 10-14 June, 2006, Poster n°1516
Background: Allergy to fish is a common cause of severe IgE-mediated food reactions. Parvalbumin a Ca++ binding protein of white muscle tissue has been defined as the major fish allergen. The sera of fish-allergic patients generally react with parvalbumins of several species. However the parvalbumin content of some fish tissues for instance the red muscle tissue of tuna has been found to very low. We observed a patient allergic to tuna fish (urticaria, Quinke edema, hypotension), whose skin tests with commercial fish extracts but also serum IgE to tuna were found to be negative. However skin tests with fresh tuna fish were positive. This study was undertaken to define the responsible allergen present in Yellofin tuna (Thunnus albacares). Methods: Protein extracts were prepared from salmon, red and white muscle tissues of tuna fish and subjected to SDS-PAGE. IgE immunoblots were performed with the serum of the index patient. The sera of four patients known to be allergic to several fish species (cod and salmon) and one patient who had previously been shown to be predominantly sensitized to tuna fish were also analyzed. Results: The IgE of 4 broadly fish-allergic patients recognized in salmon and white tuna muscle extract a protein band at about 12 kDa corresponding to parvalbumin, but they did not detect a protein band at the parvalbumin level in red muscle tuna tissue. One of them visualized an additional band at 40 kDa. The index patient reacted only with a single 40 kDa protein in red and white tuna muscle. The patient with predominantly tuna positive specific IgE reacted with parvalbumin and in addition with the same 40 kDa band of red and white tuna muscle. Conclusion: We describe an allergic patient uniquely sensitized to a 40 kDa protein most strongly present in white tuna muscle. Although sensitisation to allergens of higher molecular weight has been previously described, the overall actual focus is almost exclusively on parvalbumins. This could lead to absence of correct clinical diagnosis in patients only sensitized to fish allergens differing from parvalbumins, because these allergies seem not to be picked up by actual skin - but also in vitro tests.
[41] - Porcel S, Leon F, Cumplido J, Cuevas M, Guimaraens D, Conde-Salazar L. Contact urticaria caused by heat-sensitive raw fish allergens. Contact Dermatitis 2001;45:139-142
Patients allergic to fish usually present with skin reactions after handling raw fish. Less frequently, these reactions are seen without symptoms after oral intake, often in chefs and food handlers. We have attempted to explain the skin selectivity of such reactions in a 36-year-old woman with contact urticaria after handling raw fish. We obtained aqueous extracts of raw and cooked fish (sole and hake) for in vivo (prick test) and in vitro (SDS-PAGE, IgE Immunoblot) tests. Prick-by-prick test, 20-min closed patch test, rub test with fresh and cooked fish (sole, hake and cod) and specific IgE (CAP-system) to sole, cod and hake were performed. The strength of positive reaction to raw fish was greater than to cooked fish on both prick and prick-by-prick testing. Rub tests showed positive responses only to raw fish. Specific IgEs to sole (45 KU/l), hake (66.9 KU/l) and cod (18.7 KU/l) were obtained. IgE immunoblot recognized 3 antigens of 25, 48, 56 kDa in raw sole and 1 of 42 kDa in raw hake extracts. No IgE binding was observed with the cooked extracts or control sera. Our findings strongly suggest a Type-I hypersensitivity to fish. Immunoblot analyses demonstrated a loss of specific IgE binding to cooked extracts. We have reported a case of contact urticaria caused by heat-sensitive raw-fish allergens in a patient who probably became sensitized via the cutaneous route.
[42] - James JM, Helm RM, Burks AW, Lehrer SB. Comparison of pediatric and adult IgE antibody binding to fish proteins. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1997;79:131-137
BACKGROUND: Allergic reactions to fish are a common cause of food allergy . OBJECTIVE: We compared the binding of pediatric and adult fish-allergic patient IgE antibodies to fish proteins . METHODS: Clinical histories of fish allergy were confirmed by prick skin tests, RAST and if possible, with blinded oral food challenges. The patients included five children with severe allergic reactions to catfish (4/5), cod (1/5), and tuna (1/5) and five adults with severe allergic reactions to catfish (5/5), cod (2/5), snapper (3/5), and tuna (2/5). Extracted proteins from catfish, cod, snapper, and tuna were separated with SDS-PAGE. IgE immunoblots and immunoblot inhibition studies were performed using serum sample from these patients . RESULTS: Multiple fish proteins ranging from 12 to 45 kD from the four fish extracts were identified by SDS-PAGE. A major protein (12.5 kD) was present in all fish extracts except for raw tuna. Immunoblots using individual pediatric and adult serum samples revealed that the major IgE binding was to the 12.5-kD protein from catfish, cod, and snapper. The immunoblot with tuna using serum from a pediatric patient with isolated tuna anaphylaxis revealed an IgE binding protein band at 40 kD. Preincubation of serum samples from two separate fish-allergic patients with 1 mg of cod fish extract completely inhibited IgE binding to the 12.5-kD fish protein in subsequent immunoblots . CONCLUSIONS: Pediatric and adult fish-allergic patients have similar in vitro IgE binding to a 12.5-kD protein from fish extracts. This protein is immunochemically similar to Gad c I, the major allergen in cod.
[44] - Pascual CY, Reche M, Fiandor A, Valbuena T, Cuevas T, Martin-Esteban MM. Fish allergy in childhood. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2008;19:573-579
Fish and its derived products play an important role in human nutrition, but they may also be a potent food allergen. Fish can be an ingested, contact, and inhalant allergen. Gad c I, a Parvalbumin, the major allergen in codfish, is considered as fish and amphibian pan-allergen. Prevalence of fish allergy appears to depend on the amount of fish eaten in the local diet. In Europe, the highest consumption occurs in Scandinavian countries, Spain and Portugal. In Spain, fish is the third most frequent allergen in children under 2 yr of age after egg and cow's milk. An adverse reaction to fish may be of non-allergic origin, due to food contamination or newly formed toxic products, but the most frequent type of adverse reactions to fish are immunologic-mediated reactions (allergic reactions). Such allergic reactions may be both IgE-mediated and non-IgE-mediated. Most cases are IgE-mediated, due to ingestion or contact with fish or as a result of inhalation of cooking vapors. Some children develop non-IgE-mediated type allergies such as food protein induced enterocolitis syndrome. The clinical symptoms related to IgE-mediated fish allergy are most frequently acute urticaria and angioedema as well as mild oral symptoms, worsening of atopic dermatitis, respiratory symptoms such as rhinitis or asthma, and gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea and vomiting. Anaphylaxis may also occur. Among all the species studied, those from the Tunidae and Xiphiidae families appear to be the least allergenic.
[45] - Bernhisel-Broadbent J, Strause D, Sampson HA. Fish hypersensitivity. II: Clinical relevance of altered fish allergenicity caused by various preparation methods. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1992;90:622-629
In double-blind, placebo-controlled, oral food challenges with fish, a 12-fold higher false-negative rate was found compared with other food antigens. In an effort to elucidate this discrepancy, cooked lyophilized fish extracts (used in double-blind, placebo-controlled, oral food challenges) were compared with cooked, nonlyophilized fish extracts (used in open challenges) by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, immunoblot, and ELISA-inhibition assays. Altered fish allergenicity as a result of food processing was examined with canned tuna and salmon. Forty-five children and young adults with food allergies, including 18 patients with IgE-mediated hypersensitivity to fish, were challenged with canned tuna. All 45 challenges with canned tuna were negative. Two of these patients are allergic to salmon and also have negative reactions to challenges with canned salmon. In vitro investigation by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of tuna and salmon extracts revealed a striking loss of definable protein fractions in the canned fish extract when compared with raw and cooked fish extracts, and immunoblot analyses demonstrated minimal IgE-specific binding to the canned fish extracts. In addition, decreased allergenicity of the canned tuna and salmon was demonstrated by ELISA-inhibition assay and by negative oral challenges with canned salmon in two patients allergic to salmon. Collectively, these findings suggest that some of the major allergens responsible for IgE-mediated food allergy to fish are more labile than previously recognized.
[46] - Pascual C, Martin Esteban M, Crespo JF. Fish allergy: evaluation of the importance of cross-reactivity. J Pediatr 1992;121(5 Pt 2):S29-S34
Fish constitute one of the most important groups of allergens in the induction of immediate (type I) food hypersensitivity. In our environment, fish allergy is present in 22% of all patients with a diagnosis of food hypersensitivity. We studied the allergenic significance of the fish species considered most representative because of their greater consumption in our environment (flatfishes: Pleuronectiformes such as sole, whiff, and witch; Gadiformes such as hake; and Scombriformes such as albacore) or because of the results of previous studies of Gadiformes such as cod. Through the use of isoelectric focusing and sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis immunoblotting, we have observed that several allergens common to all these species are able to bind specific IgE from the sera of sensitized patients. This allergenic community has been confirmed by radioallergosorbent inhibition. Another group of species-specific allergens focuses in the regions at about pH 5 and with molecular weights less than 14 kilodaltons; these allergens correspond to sarcoplasmic parvoalbumins. From the results observed, which have been confirmed by various procedures and techniques, we conclude that hake is the fish with the capability to induce the strongest IgE response, followed by whiff; the witch seems to be the least allergenic of all flatfishes. Among all species studied, albacore was the least allergenic. These results may be considered when one introduces supplementary feeding with fish in infants, most particularly in infants at high risk for atopy.
[47] - Yamada S, Nolte H, Zychlinsky E. Identification and characterization of allergens in two species of tuna fish. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1999;82:395-400
BACKGROUND: In countries where fish consumption is high, allergenic reactions to fish are common among patients diagnosed with food hypersensitivity. For tuna fish, allergenic proteins are not known. In addition, it is not known how the tuna fish extracts should be processed to obtain optimal in vitro diagnostic performance and to preserve labile antigens. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to characterize IgE-binding components of Yellowfin and Albacore tuna fish. METHODS: Various tuna fish extract preparations were fractionated by sodium dodecylsulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and transferred to nitrocellulose and analyzed by using tuna positive patients with different Western blot profiles. The functional activity of the extracts was evaluated by basophil histamine release. RESULTS: Immunoblot analysis showed the majority of patients responding to Yellowfin tuna extract. Inhibition studies using immunoblot analysis and histamine release testing showed a specific protein with a molecular weight of approximately 46 kD that is present in Yellowfin tuna, but absent in Albacore. Only defatted, lyophilized tuna fish extracts were able to induce histamine release from sensitized basophils although IgE-binding components were detected in fresh raw, fresh cooked, and canned tuna fish preparations. CONCLUSION: These studies indicate that patient sera may contain different tuna fish species IgE specific antibodies directed against unique species specific allergens present in Yellowfin and Albacore tuna fish. Possibly, extracts should contain specific allergenic components from both Albacore and Yellowfin to cover the epitope heterogeneity observed in sera from patients developing IgE antibodies against tuna fish.
[49] - Kondo Y, Nakajima Y, Komatsubara R, Kawamura M, Kakami M, Tsuge I, et al. Assessment Of The Allergenicity To Raw Tuna And Canned Tuna. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2007;119(1 suppl):S193
RATIONALE: It has been reported that most patients with fish allergy do not show any reactivity on IgE immunoblotting to canned tuna and can safely consume canned tuna, because of a loss of allergenicity during processing. However, there was a report describing a patient with allergy to canned tuna. Allergy to canned tuna is not well known. We encountered three patients with tuna allergy. Two of the three can consume canned tuna without any symptoms; however, the remaining one has an anaphylactic reaction to canned tuna. We assessed differences in allergenicity to tuna among these patients. METHODS: At first, using sera from each patient, we performed ELISA inhibition to assess the IgE competition between raw tuna and canned tuna. Then, the IgE binding patterns to raw tuna extract were compared by immunoblot and inhibition immunoblot. RESULTS: In the canned tuna allergic patient, IgE binding to raw tuna extract was completely inhibited by the addition of canned tuna extract. In immunoblot study, sera from a canned tuna allergic patient bound to a high-molecular-weight protein band, and this binding was inhibited by the addition of canned tuna extract. CONCLUSIONS: Whether the tuna allergic patients develop allergy or can safely consume canned tuna, may depend on IgE binding to the high-molecular-weight protein of tuna.
[51] - Kondo Y, Komatsubara R, Nakajima Y, Kawamura M, Kakami M, Tsuge I, et al. Parvalbumin was Not Responsible for the Cross-Reactivity between Tuna and Marlin: A Case Report. AAAAI 62nd Annual Meeting, Miami, 3-7 March 2006, Poster n°200
RATIONALE: Fish is a common food allergen in Japan and may cause fatal anaphylactic reactions. Subjects with fish allergy are usually allergic to multiple fish species. As the reason for cross-reactivity to a large number of fish species, the major allergen in fish is parvalbumin and this protein is present in the muscle of a variety of fish species. We encountered a patient with anaphylactic reaction to marlin. She has clinical allergic to tuna only and ate many kinds of fish other than tuna in the past without any problem. However, thirty minutes after eating cooked marlin for the first time, she had a severe anaphylactic reaction. We assessed cross-reactivity between the two fish species, tuna and marlin, which belong to different families on taxonomy METHODS: Using the patient sera, an ELISA inhibition study was performed to examine the cross-reactivity between tuna and marlin. Then, we attempted to identify the involved allergen by immunoblot inhibition study RESULTS: On ELISA inhibition study, IgE-binding to tuna and marlin were inhibited by each other. However, anisakis did not inhibit either fish extract. A high molecular weight protein was involved in IgE competition between two on immunoblot study CONCLUSIONS: There was a cross-reactivity between tuna and marlin A higher molecular weight protein but not parvalbumin seems to be responsible for cross-reactivity in this case.
[52] - Kondo Y, Nakajima Y, Komatsubara R, Ikuya T, Yasuda T, Urisu A. Allergen analysis of canned tuna using patient’s sera. Allergy 2008;63(suppl. 88):294
Background: It has been reported that most patients with fish allergy can safely consume canned tuna, because of a loss of allergenicity during processing. We have confirmed this phenomenon in many patients with multi-fish allergies that include freshly cooked tuna. However, we encountered a patient with allergy to not only cooked tuna but also canned tuna. The twelve-year old girl complained of irritability in her mouth, followed by lip angioedema after a few minutes of chewing a small piece of canned tuna. We investigated the allergens in canned tuna using her sera. Methods: Using serum from the patient, IgE-binding capacity to canned tuna was compared with those in sera from controls using an ELISA inhibition study. Control sera were obtained from patients with multifish allergies including cooked tuna but excluding canned tuna. The IgE binding patterns to fresh tuna were also compared with those of controls by immunoblot study. Results: In the patient allergic to canned tuna, IgE binding to fresh tuna extract was completely inhibited by the addition of canned tuna extract on ELISA. On immunoblot study, sera from the patient allergic to canned tuna bound to a high-molecularweight (HMW) protein band on fresh tuna, and this binding was inhibited by the addition of canned tuna extract. N-terminal amino acid analysis of this HMW protein band yielded 78% identity with the amino acid sequence of transferrin from Pagrus major. Conclusion: Almost all patients with multifish allergy can consume canned tuna without symptoms; however, a patient with allergy to HMW protein may also demonstrate an allergic reaction to canned tuna.
[53] - Helbling A, McCants ML, Musmand JJ, Schwartz HJ, Lehrer SB. Immunopathogenesis of fish allergy: identification of fish-allergic adults by skin test and radioallergosorbent test. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1996;77:48-54
As the consumption of fish increases in the United States, the importance of allergic reactions to fish has become clear. Since most previous studies on fish allergy have focused on children reacting mainly to codfish, there is a need to investigate allergic reactions to other fish in adults. OBJECTIVE: To identify fish-allergic adults, and to assess cross-reactivity among different species of fish by RAST inhibition. METHODS: Thirty-nine individuals who reported fish allergy were selected for study; 32 (82%) were atopic as defined by two or more positive skin tests to common inhalant allergens and a history of allergic reactions and 33 (85%) experienced allergic symptoms within 30 minutes after ingesting fish. The most frequently reported symptoms were hives (69%), itching (69%), and wheezing/chest tightness (54%). Study subjects were skin tested with fish extracts and their sera assayed for IgE antibodies to different fish species. RESULTS: Thirty-six (92%) of the subjects tested had a positive skin test to at least one of 17 fish extracts tested; 9/35 (26%) reacted to all 17 extracts. Of the atopic (two or more positive skin tests to common inhalant allergens plus a personal and/or family history of allergy) and nonatopic fish-tolerant controls, 20/26 (77%) reacted by skin test to one or more fish extracts tested; the most prevalent positive reaction was to anchovy (73%). A significant correlation (P < .01) was observed between skin test reactivity of fish-allergic subjects to most fish extracts and fish RAST reactions. Radioallergosorbent inhibition testing demonstrated significant cross-reactivity among pollack, salmon, trout, and tuna; and between mackerel and anchovy. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that fish-allergic subjects may be clinically sensitive to more than one species of fish. Skin test reactivity to fish by itself is not an adequate criterion for the confirmation of clinically relevant fish allergy; consequently, fish-allergic subjects with positive skin tests to several fish species should exercise caution when eating fish until tolerance can be demonstrated by double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenge, at the patient's earliest convenience.
[54] - Bernhisel-Broadbent J, Scanlon SM, Sampson HA. Fish hypersensitivity. I. In vitro and oral challenge results in fish-allergic patients. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1992;89:730-737
The purpose of this study was to determine whether patients allergic to one fish species can safely eat other fish species. Eleven atopic, food-allergic children and young adults with histories consistent with IgE-mediated fish hypersensitivity were skin prick tested to 10 fish species. Skin prick tests (SPTs) were positive to all 10 fish in eight of the 11 patients, and the remaining three patients had at least two positive fish SPTs. Positive oral challenges occurred to only one fish in seven of the patients, to two fish species in one patient, and to three fish species in two patients. One patient did not react to any of the fish tested. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and immunoblot analyses were performed on raw and cooked protein extracts from nine of the 10 fish species used in SPTs. Several protein bands in the raw-fish extracts appeared to denature with cooking and form high molecular weight conglomerates. Immunoblot analyses with sera from documented fish-allergic patients demonstrated specific IgE binding to protein bands from fish to which patients were not clinically allergic, as determined by oral challenge. In ELISA-inhibition assays, the concentration of fish antigen required to achieve 50% inhibition was similar for fish to which the patients were clinically allergic as compared to fish to which they were clinically tolerant. SPT and in vitro evidence of IgE-specific cross-reactivity does not necessarily correlate with symptomatic fish allergy. In addition, these fish-hypersensitive patients were able to consume one or more other fish species without adverse allergic reactions.
[55] - James JM, Helm RM, Burks AW, Lehrer SB. Comparison of pediatric and adult IgE antibody binding to fish proteins. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1997;79:131-137
BACKGROUND: Allergic reactions to fish are a common cause of food allergy . OBJECTIVE: We compared the binding of pediatric and adult fish-allergic patient IgE antibodies to fish proteins . METHODS: Clinical histories of fish allergy were confirmed by prick skin tests, RAST and if possible, with blinded oral food challenges. The patients included five children with severe allergic reactions to catfish (4/5), cod (1/5), and tuna (1/5) and five adults with severe allergic reactions to catfish (5/5), cod (2/5), snapper (3/5), and tuna (2/5). Extracted proteins from catfish, cod, snapper, and tuna were separated with SDS-PAGE. IgE immunoblots and immunoblot inhibition studies were performed using serum sample from these patients . RESULTS: Multiple fish proteins ranging from 12 to 45 kD from the four fish extracts were identified by SDS-PAGE. A major protein (12.5 kD) was present in all fish extracts except for raw tuna. Immunoblots using individual pediatric and adult serum samples revealed that the major IgE binding was to the 12.5-kD protein from catfish, cod, and snapper. The immunoblot with tuna using serum from a pediatric patient with isolated tuna anaphylaxis revealed an IgE binding protein band at 40 kD. Preincubation of serum samples from two separate fish-allergic patients with 1 mg of cod fish extract completely inhibited IgE binding to the 12.5-kD fish protein in subsequent immunoblots . CONCLUSIONS: Pediatric and adult fish-allergic patients have similar in vitro IgE binding to a 12.5-kD protein from fish extracts. This protein is immunochemically similar to Gad c I, the major allergen in cod.
[58] - Kondo Y, Komatsubara R, Nakajima Y, Kawamura M, Kakami M, Tsuge I, et al. Parvalbumin was Not Responsible for the Cross-Reactivity between Tuna and Marlin: A Case Report. AAAAI 62nd Annual Meeting, Miami, 3-7 March 2006, Poster n°200
RATIONALE: Fish is a common food allergen in Japan and may cause fatal anaphylactic reactions. Subjects with fish allergy are usually allergic to multiple fish species. As the reason for cross-reactivity to a large number of fish species, the major allergen in fish is parvalbumin and this protein is present in the muscle of a variety of fish species. We encountered a patient with anaphylactic reaction to marlin. She has clinical allergic to tuna only and ate many kinds of fish other than tuna in the past without any problem. However, thirty minutes after eating cooked marlin for the first time, she had a severe anaphylactic reaction. We assessed cross-reactivity between the two fish species, tuna and marlin, which belong to different families on taxonomy METHODS: Using the patient sera, an ELISA inhibition study was performed to examine the cross-reactivity between tuna and marlin. Then, we attempted to identify the involved allergen by immunoblot inhibition study RESULTS: On ELISA inhibition study, IgE-binding to tuna and marlin were inhibited by each other. However, anisakis did not inhibit either fish extract. A high molecular weight protein was involved in IgE competition between two on immunoblot study CONCLUSIONS: There was a cross-reactivity between tuna and marlin A higher molecular weight protein but not parvalbumin seems to be responsible for cross-reactivity in this case.
[59] - Sletten G, Egaas E, Lindvik H, Van Do T, Florvaag E. Effects of industrial processing of commonly ingested fish species on fish protein allergenicity. Allergy 2007;62(suppl. 83):328
Background: Fish is among the most common foods which induce IgE-mediated type I food allergy and is also known to elicit severe food anaphylaxis. Fish has been taken up in the European Union declaration guideline for allergenic foods (Directive 2003/89/EC), which under Annex IIIa states that the presence of fish, or products derived from fish, in foodstuffs should be clearly and specifically indicated on the label. Little is known about the changes in allergenicity when fish is industrially processed. Methods: In the present study, we purchased samples of fresh and cured fish (smoked, salted/sugar-cured, canned, lye-treated and fermented products of cod, haddock, salmon, tuna, mackerel and trout). The effects of processing on the protein profiles of the fish products were studied using SDS-PAGE. The immunogenicity of the fish products was measured using polyclonal rabbit anti-cod parvalbumin (immunoblot). Allergenicity of the proteins/peptides in the products was studied using immunoblot, binding fish-specific IgE from a serum pool of six confirmed fish-allergic patients. Results: Processing in general caused the loss of some protein bands (SDS-PAGE) and intensification of others. Novel bands were seen in cod after salting and drying, and in haddock and salmon after smoking, whereas fewer bands were seen in smoked mackerel. Protein band intensity and number appeared most susceptible to canning, lye-treatment and fermentation. Immunoblot using anti-parvalbumin showed that fermentation (salmon, trout) or lye-treatment (cod) had relatively little effect, whereas salting/drying (cod) and smoking (salmon, mackerel) appeared to increase immunogenicity. IgE binding was increased by lye-treatment (cod) and by fermentation of salmon but not of trout. Smoking appeared to have little effect on IgE-binding in salmon and haddock. IgE binding was greatly reduced in smoked mackerel and in salted cod. Discussion: We have observed not only differences in protein profiles between the different species of fish, but also clear alterations in these profiles following processing of the relevant fish. Immunogenicity, shown using immunoblot, varied between the various fish species and between fresh and processed products from the same species. IgE binding patterns also varied considerably between the different fish species and the patterns differed clearly between processed and fresh fish of the same species.
[60] - Van Do T, Elsayed S, Florvaag E, Hordvik I, Endresen C. Allergy to fish parvalbumins: Studies on the cross-reactivity of allergens from 9 commonly consumed fish. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005;116:1314-1320
BACKGROUND: Fish-hypersensitive patients can probably tolerate some fish species while being allergic to others . OBJECTIVE: To determine the allergenic cross-reactivity between 9 commonly edible fish: cod, salmon, pollack, mackerel, tuna, herring, wolffish, halibut, and flounder . METHODS: Sera from 10 patients allergic to fish and rabbit antisera against 3 parvalbumins (Gad c 1, Sal s 1, and The c 1) were used. Cross-reactivity was investigated by SDS/PAGE and IgE immunoblotting, IgG ELISA, IgE ELISA inhibition, and skin prick test (SPT) . RESULTS: Cod (Gad c 1), salmon (Sal s 1), pollack (The c 1), herring, and wolffish share antigenic and allergenic determinants as shown by immunoblots and IgE ELISA, whereas halibut, flounder, tuna, and mackerel displayed lowest cross-reactivities. The highest mean IgE ELISA inhibition percent of 10 sera was obtained by Gad c 1, followed by The c 1, herring, Sal s 1, wolffish, halibut, flounder, tuna, and mackerel with the least inhibition. Nine of the 10 patients showed positive SPT to cod, salmon, and pollack; 8 patients reacted to recombinant (r) Sal s 1. Positive SPTs to rGad c 1 and rThe c 1 were demonstrated in 1 patient . CONCLUSION: Gad c 1, Sal s 1, The c 1, herring, and wolffish contained the most potent cross-reacting allergens, whereas halibut, flounder, tuna, and mackerel were the least allergenic in the current study. The latter could probably be tolerated by some of the tested patients.
[62] - Kuehn A, Felten P, Hilger C, Hentges F. Allergic reaction to tuna fish. IgE sensitisation to a 40kDa protein distinct from parvalbumin. EAACI 25th Congress, Vienna, 10-14 June, 2006, Poster n°1516
Background: Allergy to fish is a common cause of severe IgE-mediated food reactions. Parvalbumin a Ca++ binding protein of white muscle tissue has been defined as the major fish allergen. The sera of fish-allergic patients generally react with parvalbumins of several species. However the parvalbumin content of some fish tissues for instance the red muscle tissue of tuna has been found to very low. We observed a patient allergic to tuna fish (urticaria, Quinke edema, hypotension), whose skin tests with commercial fish extracts but also serum IgE to tuna were found to be negative. However skin tests with fresh tuna fish were positive. This study was undertaken to define the responsible allergen present in Yellofin tuna (Thunnus albacares). Methods: Protein extracts were prepared from salmon, red and white muscle tissues of tuna fish and subjected to SDS-PAGE. IgE immunoblots were performed with the serum of the index patient. The sera of four patients known to be allergic to several fish species (cod and salmon) and one patient who had previously been shown to be predominantly sensitized to tuna fish were also analyzed. Results: The IgE of 4 broadly fish-allergic patients recognized in salmon and white tuna muscle extract a protein band at about 12 kDa corresponding to parvalbumin, but they did not detect a protein band at the parvalbumin level in red muscle tuna tissue. One of them visualized an additional band at 40 kDa. The index patient reacted only with a single 40 kDa protein in red and white tuna muscle. The patient with predominantly tuna positive specific IgE reacted with parvalbumin and in addition with the same 40 kDa band of red and white tuna muscle. Conclusion: We describe an allergic patient uniquely sensitized to a 40 kDa protein most strongly present in white tuna muscle. Although sensitisation to allergens of higher molecular weight has been previously described, the overall actual focus is almost exclusively on parvalbumins. This could lead to absence of correct clinical diagnosis in patients only sensitized to fish allergens differing from parvalbumins, because these allergies seem not to be picked up by actual skin - but also in vitro tests.
[63] - Kobayashi A, Tanaka H, Hamada Y, Ishizaki S, Nagashima Y, Shiomi K. Comparison of allergenicity and allergens between fish white and dark muscles. Allergy 2006;61:357-363
BACKGROUND: Fish is one of the most frequent causes of immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated food allergy. Although the fish dark muscle is often ingested with the white muscle, no information about its allergenicity and allergens is available . METHODS: Heated extracts were prepared from both white and dark muscles of five species of fish and examined for reactivity with IgE in fish-allergic patients by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and for allergens by immunoblotting. Cloning of cDNAs encoding parvalbumins was performed by rapid amplification cDNA ends. Parvalbumin contents in both white and dark muscles were determined by ELISA using antiserum against mackerel parvalbumin . RESULTS: Patient sera were less reactive to the heated extract from the dark muscle than to that from the white muscle. A prominent IgE-reactive protein of 12 kDa, which was detected in both white and dark muscles, was identified as parvalbumin. Molecular cloning experiments revealed that the same parvalbumin molecule is contained in both white and dark muscles of either horse mackerel or Pacific mackerel. Parvalbumin contents were four to eight times lower in the dark muscle than in the white muscle . CONCLUSIONS: The fish dark muscle is less allergenic than the white muscle, because the same allergen molecule (parvalbumin) is contained at much lower levels in the dark muscle than in the white muscle. Thus, the dark muscle is less implicated in fish allergy than the white muscle.
[64] - Bugajska-Schretter A, Grote M, Vangelista L, Valent P, Sperr WR, Rumpold H, et al. Purification, biochemical, and immunological characterisation of a major food allergen: different immunoglobulin E recognition of the apo- and calcium-bound forms of carp parvalbumin. Gut 2000;46:661-669
Almost 4% of the population suffer from food allergy which is an adverse reaction to food with an underlying immunological mechanism. AIMS: To characterise one of the most frequent IgE defined food allergens, fish parvalbumin. METHODS: Tissue and subcellular distribution of carp parvalbumin was analysed by immunogold electron microscopy and cell fractionation. Parvalbumin was purified to homogeneity, analysed by mass spectrometry and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy, and its allergenic activity was analysed by IgE binding and basophil histamine release tests. RESULTS: The isoelectric point (pI) 4.7 form of carp parvalbumin, a three EF-hand calcium-binding protein, was purified to homogeneity. CD analysis revealed a remarkable stability and refolding capacity of calcium-bound parvalbumin. This may explain why parvalbumin, despite cooking and exposure to the gastrointestinal tract, can sensitise patients. Purified parvalbumin reacted with IgE of more than 95% of individuals allergic to fish, induced dose-dependent basophil histamine release and contained, on average, 83% of the IgE epitopes present in other fish species. Calcium depletion reduced the IgE binding capacity of parvalbumin which, according to CD analysis, may be due to conformation-dependent IgE recognition. CONCLUSIONS: Purified carp parvalbumin represents an important cross reactive food allergen. It can be used for in vitro and in vivo diagnosis of fish-induced food allergy. Our finding that the apo-form of parvalbumin had a greatly reduced IgE binding capacity indicates that this form may be a candidate for safe immunotherapy of fish-related food allergy.
[65] - Bugajska-Schretter A, Elfman L, Fuchs T, Kapiotis S, Rumpold H, Valenta R, et al. Parvalbumin, a cross-reactive fish allergen, contains IgE-binding epitopes sensitive to periodate treatment and Ca2+ depletion. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1998;101:67-74
BACKGROUND: Type I allergy to fish is a severe health problem in countries in which a large percentage of the population derive income from fishing. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to characterize cross-reactive IgE-binding components in six different fish species (cod, tuna, salmon, perch, carp, and eel). The effect of reducing extraction conditions, periodate treatment, and depletion of Ca2+ on binding of IgE to the allergens was investigated. METHODS: Extracts were prepared under nonreducing and reducing conditions. IgE-binding components were characterized by IgE immunoblotting, and cross-reactive epitopes were studied by IgE-immunoblot inhibition experiments. To reveal calcium-sensitive or carbohydrate-containing epitopes, nitrocellulose-blotted extracts were exposed to ethylene glycol bis(beta-aminoethyl ether)-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid (EGTA) and periodate. RESULTS: Sera from all patients allergic to fish (n = 30) displayed IgE reactivity to parvalbumin, a 12 kd protein present in fish extracts from six different species. Reducing extraction conditions had no effect on IgE binding to parvalbumins, whereas periodate treatment and depletion of protein-bound calcium led to a substantial reduction of IgE binding. Parvalbumins from six different species contained cross-reactive IgE epitopes. CONCLUSION: Parvalbumin represents a cross-reactive fish allergen. It contains IgE epitopes that are sensitive to periodate treatment and Ca2+-depletion.
[66] - Costa A, Bento M, Santos M, Pereira-Barbosa M. Clinical characteristics and allergy-immunologic aspects of patients with fish allergy. EAACI 25th Congress, Vienna, 10-14 June, 2006, Poster n°1552
Background: In Portugal allergic reactions to fish are common among patients (pts) diagnosed with food hypersensitivity. Characterization of fish allergens is important to understand the immune response to these allergens. Objective: To identify fish-allergic pts and to determine correlation between clinical history, skin prick tests (SPT), specific IgE (sIgE)and immunoblotting. Methods: 13 pts (5F and 8M; aged between 3-24; mean age 8 years old) who report fish allergy were selected for study; 12/13 (92%) were atopic as defined by two or more positive SPT to common aeroallergens and a history of allergic reactions; 10/13 (85%) experienced allergic symptoms within 30 minutes after ingestion of fish: urticaria/angioedema (54%), vomit (23%), itching (23%) and wheezing (15%). 23% had eczema worsening after fish ingestion. Study subjects were skin tested with fish extracts and their sera assayed for sIgE (Immulite 2000, DPC1, Amerlab and UniCap2, Pharmacia) and immunoblotting (AlaBLOT3, DPC, Amerlab) to different fish species (cod1,3, pollack2, salmon1,3, tuna1,3, sole2, sardine1,3) and Anisakis simplex (As). Results: 12/13 (92%) pts had a positive SPT to at least one of 6 fish extracts tested; 7 patients had positive SPT and sIgE to all extracts; 5 had negative SPT and specific IgE to tuna. The highest mean sIgE of 13 sera was obtained by cod (58.7KU/L), followed by sardine (48.4), salmon (31.8), pollack (16.2), sole (11.8) and tuna (5.6). Multiple fish proteins ranging from 12 to 45 kD from the six fish extracts were identified by immunoblot. A major protein (bands at 12-14 kD) was present in all fish extracts and was recognized by serum IgE from 12/13 (92%) pts. There are another two codfish proteins identified, namely 25 kD recognized in 9/10 sardine, 4/8 tuna and 5/12 salmon and 41 kD in 7/8 tuna, 7/10 sardine and 2/12 salmon alergic pts. One patient with gastrointestinal complaints had negative fish SPT, positive sIgE to As and recognized the 25 Kd protein. Conclusions: In all pts we identified a 12-14 kD protein, which is immunochemically similar to Gad cI, the major allergen in cod. The greater incidence of allergy to codfish and sardine seems to be associate with the most common fish species inclued in diet of our population. These data suggest a good correlation between the different parameters analysed in all pts.
[69] - André F, Cavagna S, André C. Gelatin Prepared from Tuna Skin: A Risk Factor for Fish Allergy or Sensitization ? Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2003;130:17-24
Background: Although fish gelatin may represent a useful alternative to bovine or porcine gelatins, the clearly recognized high prevalence of fish allergy could increase the risk of anaphylaxis to gelatin. The rationale for investigating tuna gelatin rather than gelatins from more allergenic fishes is the availability of an industrial gelatin under development. The infrequent occurrence of tuna allergy should influence the safety of a derived product. The present study investigated IgE antibodies to tuna-skin-derived gelatin in adults and children with documented fish allergy or sensitization. Methods: Serum samples were taken from 100 consecutive patients with fish allergy or sensitization and tested for IgE antibodies against hydrolyzed or nonhydrolyzed gelatin extracted from tuna skin as compared to extracts from tuna flesh, tuna skin as well as bovine or porcine gelatins. Patients with tuna allergies or sensitization were sensitive to the same tuna species (yellowfin) as that from which the gelatin was obtained. IgE antibodies to these various extracts were analyzed using SDS-PAGE and immunoblotting. Results: Only 3 of the 100 serum samples tested gave evidence of reactivity to gelatin extracted from tuna skin. Cross-reactivity between bovine/porcine and fish gelatins was not observed. Conclusion: The risk of adverse reactions to tuna skin gelatin seems to be significantly lower than the risk of fish allergy. Fish gelatin may represent a valuable alternative to bovine or porcine gelatins.
[70] - Hilger C, Thill L, Grigioni F, Lehners C, Falagiani P, Ferrara A, et al. IgE antibodies of fish allergic patients cross-react with frog parvalbumin. Allergy 2004;59:653-660
BACKGROUND: The major allergens in fish are parvalbumins. Important immunoglobulin (Ig)E cross-recognition of parvalbumins from different fish species has been shown. Recently frog parvalbumin alpha has been found to be responsible for a case of IgE-mediated anaphylaxis triggered by the ingestion of frog meat. The aim of this study was to investigate whether IgE antibodies of fish allergic persons cross-react with frog parvalbumin and to appreciate its clinical relevance . METHODS: The sera of 15 fish allergic patients and one fish and frog allergic patient were tested by IgE-immunoblotting against frog muscle extract. Sera were tested against recombinant parvalbumin alpha and beta from Rana esculenta. Skin prick tests were performed in selected patients with recombinant frog parvalbumin. Ca(2+) depletion experiments and inhibition studies with purified cod and frog recombinant parvalbumin were done to characterize the cross-reactive pattern . RESULTS: Fourteen of the sera tested had IgE antibodies recognizing low molecular weight components in frog muscle extract. Calcium depletion experiments or inhibition of patient sera with purified cod parvalbumin led to a significant or complete decrease in IgE binding. When tested against recombinant parvalbumins, three of 13 sera reacted with alpha parvalbumin and 11 of 12 reacted with beta parvalbumin from R. esculenta. Skin prick tests performed with recombinant frog parvalbumin were positive in fish allergic patients. Inhibition studies showed that a fish and frog allergic patient was primarily sensitized to fish parvalbumin . CONCLUSION: Cod parvalbumin, a major cross-reactive allergen among different fish species, shares IgE binding epitopes with frog parvalbumin. This in vitro cross-reactivity seems to be also clinically relevant. Parvalbumins probably represent a new family of cross-reactive allergens.
[71] - Van Do T, Elsayed S, Florvaag E, Hordvik I, Endresen C. Allergy to fish parvalbumins: Studies on the cross-reactivity of allergens from 9 commonly consumed fish. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005;116:1314-1320
BACKGROUND: Fish-hypersensitive patients can probably tolerate some fish species while being allergic to others . OBJECTIVE: To determine the allergenic cross-reactivity between 9 commonly edible fish: cod, salmon, pollack, mackerel, tuna, herring, wolffish, halibut, and flounder . METHODS: Sera from 10 patients allergic to fish and rabbit antisera against 3 parvalbumins (Gad c 1, Sal s 1, and The c 1) were used. Cross-reactivity was investigated by SDS/PAGE and IgE immunoblotting, IgG ELISA, IgE ELISA inhibition, and skin prick test (SPT) . RESULTS: Cod (Gad c 1), salmon (Sal s 1), pollack (The c 1), herring, and wolffish share antigenic and allergenic determinants as shown by immunoblots and IgE ELISA, whereas halibut, flounder, tuna, and mackerel displayed lowest cross-reactivities. The highest mean IgE ELISA inhibition percent of 10 sera was obtained by Gad c 1, followed by The c 1, herring, Sal s 1, wolffish, halibut, flounder, tuna, and mackerel with the least inhibition. Nine of the 10 patients showed positive SPT to cod, salmon, and pollack; 8 patients reacted to recombinant (r) Sal s 1. Positive SPTs to rGad c 1 and rThe c 1 were demonstrated in 1 patient . CONCLUSION: Gad c 1, Sal s 1, The c 1, herring, and wolffish contained the most potent cross-reacting allergens, whereas halibut, flounder, tuna, and mackerel were the least allergenic in the current study. The latter could probably be tolerated by some of the tested patients.
[73] - Koyama H, Kakami M, Kawamura M, Tokuda R, Kondo Y, TsugeI, et al. Grades of 43 Fish Species in Japan, Based on IgE-binding Activity. Allergology International 2006;55:311-316
BACKGROUND: Hypersensitivity reactions to fish are a common food allergy, but IgE-binding activity to fish species have not been fully elucidated. The aim of this study was to identify fish with high binding activity to IgE in sera from Japanese fish-hypersensitive individuals . METHODS: 38 children with a history of at least one episode of hypersensitivity after ingestion of fish were enrolled and 34 children with no history of reactions and negative IgE results for at least five kinds of fish antigen were included as controls. Using a radioallergosorbent test, we examined IgE-binding to each fish species using sera from fish-hypersensitive subjects. Fish were then graded according to IgE-binding activity . RESULTS: Many fish species, including red salmon, silver salmon, yellowfin tuna, big eyed tuna, Atlantic tuna, saurel, skipper, yellowtail, Japanese sardine, bonita and mackerel had high IgE-binding activity. All of these fish are abundantly consumed in Japan. The hypersensitivity reactions experienced by many subjects occurred after ingestion of species with high IgE-binding activity. Only halibut (Osteichthyes) and sharks (Chondrichthyes) had low IgE-binding activity . CONCLUSIONS: A correlation was observed between IgE levels and expression of symptoms after fish ingestion. High consumption of salmon, tuna, scad (including saurel), skipper, yellowtail, sardine, bonita and mackerel in Japan might be the cause of the high IgE-binding activity of these species. The grades of fish species consumed widely in Japan are likely to be useful for nutritional instruction of fish-allergic patients.
[74] - Van Do T, Elsayed S, Florvaag E, Hordvik I, Endresen C. Allergy to fish parvalbumins: Studies on the cross-reactivity of allergens from 9 commonly consumed fish. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005;116:1314-1320
BACKGROUND: Fish-hypersensitive patients can probably tolerate some fish species while being allergic to others . OBJECTIVE: To determine the allergenic cross-reactivity between 9 commonly edible fish: cod, salmon, pollack, mackerel, tuna, herring, wolffish, halibut, and flounder . METHODS: Sera from 10 patients allergic to fish and rabbit antisera against 3 parvalbumins (Gad c 1, Sal s 1, and The c 1) were used. Cross-reactivity was investigated by SDS/PAGE and IgE immunoblotting, IgG ELISA, IgE ELISA inhibition, and skin prick test (SPT) . RESULTS: Cod (Gad c 1), salmon (Sal s 1), pollack (The c 1), herring, and wolffish share antigenic and allergenic determinants as shown by immunoblots and IgE ELISA, whereas halibut, flounder, tuna, and mackerel displayed lowest cross-reactivities. The highest mean IgE ELISA inhibition percent of 10 sera was obtained by Gad c 1, followed by The c 1, herring, Sal s 1, wolffish, halibut, flounder, tuna, and mackerel with the least inhibition. Nine of the 10 patients showed positive SPT to cod, salmon, and pollack; 8 patients reacted to recombinant (r) Sal s 1. Positive SPTs to rGad c 1 and rThe c 1 were demonstrated in 1 patient . CONCLUSION: Gad c 1, Sal s 1, The c 1, herring, and wolffish contained the most potent cross-reacting allergens, whereas halibut, flounder, tuna, and mackerel were the least allergenic in the current study. The latter could probably be tolerated by some of the tested patients.
[75] - Kuehn A, Felten P, Hilger C, Hentges F. Allergic reaction to tuna fish. IgE sensitisation to a 40kDa protein distinct from parvalbumin. EAACI 25th Congress, Vienna, 10-14 June, 2006, Poster n°1516
Background: Allergy to fish is a common cause of severe IgE-mediated food reactions. Parvalbumin a Ca++ binding protein of white muscle tissue has been defined as the major fish allergen. The sera of fish-allergic patients generally react with parvalbumins of several species. However the parvalbumin content of some fish tissues for instance the red muscle tissue of tuna has been found to very low. We observed a patient allergic to tuna fish (urticaria, Quinke edema, hypotension), whose skin tests with commercial fish extracts but also serum IgE to tuna were found to be negative. However skin tests with fresh tuna fish were positive. This study was undertaken to define the responsible allergen present in Yellofin tuna (Thunnus albacares). Methods: Protein extracts were prepared from salmon, red and white muscle tissues of tuna fish and subjected to SDS-PAGE. IgE immunoblots were performed with the serum of the index patient. The sera of four patients known to be allergic to several fish species (cod and salmon) and one patient who had previously been shown to be predominantly sensitized to tuna fish were also analyzed. Results: The IgE of 4 broadly fish-allergic patients recognized in salmon and white tuna muscle extract a protein band at about 12 kDa corresponding to parvalbumin, but they did not detect a protein band at the parvalbumin level in red muscle tuna tissue. One of them visualized an additional band at 40 kDa. The index patient reacted only with a single 40 kDa protein in red and white tuna muscle. The patient with predominantly tuna positive specific IgE reacted with parvalbumin and in addition with the same 40 kDa band of red and white tuna muscle. Conclusion: We describe an allergic patient uniquely sensitized to a 40 kDa protein most strongly present in white tuna muscle. Although sensitisation to allergens of higher molecular weight has been previously described, the overall actual focus is almost exclusively on parvalbumins. This could lead to absence of correct clinical diagnosis in patients only sensitized to fish allergens differing from parvalbumins, because these allergies seem not to be picked up by actual skin - but also in vitro tests.
[78] - Kondo Y, Komatsubara R, Nakajima Y, Kawamura M, Kakami M, Tsuge I, et al. Parvalbumin was Not Responsible for the Cross-Reactivity between Tuna and Marlin: A Case Report. AAAAI 62nd Annual Meeting, Miami, 3-7 March 2006, Poster n°200
RATIONALE: Fish is a common food allergen in Japan and may cause fatal anaphylactic reactions. Subjects with fish allergy are usually allergic to multiple fish species. As the reason for cross-reactivity to a large number of fish species, the major allergen in fish is parvalbumin and this protein is present in the muscle of a variety of fish species. We encountered a patient with anaphylactic reaction to marlin. She has clinical allergic to tuna only and ate many kinds of fish other than tuna in the past without any problem. However, thirty minutes after eating cooked marlin for the first time, she had a severe anaphylactic reaction. We assessed cross-reactivity between the two fish species, tuna and marlin, which belong to different families on taxonomy METHODS: Using the patient sera, an ELISA inhibition study was performed to examine the cross-reactivity between tuna and marlin. Then, we attempted to identify the involved allergen by immunoblot inhibition study RESULTS: On ELISA inhibition study, IgE-binding to tuna and marlin were inhibited by each other. However, anisakis did not inhibit either fish extract. A high molecular weight protein was involved in IgE competition between two on immunoblot study CONCLUSIONS: There was a cross-reactivity between tuna and marlin A higher molecular weight protein but not parvalbumin seems to be responsible for cross-reactivity in this case.
[79] - de Martino M, Novembre E, Galli L, De Marco A, Botarelli P, Marano E, et al. Allergy to different fish species in cod-allergic children: in vivo and in vitro studies. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1990;86:909-914
The presence of a positive clinical history and skin test (ST) results for 17 fish species (anchovy, bass, carp, dogfish, eel, gilthead, mackerel, mullet, perch, red mullet, salmon, sardine, sole, tench, toothed gilthead, trout, and tuna) were investigated in 20 children with cod-positive clinical history, ST, and RAST, and in 40 children positive to one or more foods different from cod (cow's milk, chicken egg white, peanut, and tomato). In cod-positive children, positive clinical history (60%) and ST (85%) to fish species were more frequent than in cod-negative children (7.5% and 10% respectively). In cod-positive children, a high frequency of positive STs to eel (85%) and to bass, dentex, sole, and tuna (55%) was observed. Positivity to dogfish (10%) was the least frequent. RAST-inhibition experiments suggested the presence of cross-reacting antigen(s) in cod, bass, dentex, eel, sole, and tuna. Results of this study demonstrate that cod allergy might be, on the whole, a reliable index of fish allergy, but cod-positive children may perhaps tolerate some other species, which will have to be tested for possible inclusion in their diet.
[80] - Das A, Chakraborti P, Chatterjee U, Monddal G, Chatterjee BP. Identification of allergens in Indian fishes: hilsa and pomfret exemplified by ELISA and immunoblotting. Indian J Exp Biol 2005;43:1170-1175
Enzymed-linked immunosorbent assay of hilsa and pomfret muscle extracts showed specific IgE binding to ten allergic patients' sera, the results corroborated to that of skin prick test. Comparison of allergen profiles of the two fish extracts by immunoblotting revealed a common antigenic protein of 50 kDa and some high molecular weight fish allergens instead of low molecular weight parvalbumin found in several fishes. Purified and well characterized fish allergens are always considered better than crude fish extracts for diagnostic use.
[81] - Rosmilah M, Shahnaz M, Masita A, Noormalin A, Jamaludin M. Identification of major allergens of two species of local snappers: Lutjanus argentimaculatus (merah/ red snapper) and Lutjanus johnii (jenahak/ golden snapper). Trop Biomed 2005;22:171-177
Fish has been recognized as a source of potent allergens both in food and occupational allergy. Lutjanus argentimaculatus (red snapper) and Lutjanus johnii (golden snapper) locally known as merah and jenahak, respectively, are among the most commonly consumed fish in Malaysia. The objective of this study is to identify the IgE-binding proteins and major allergens of these species of fishes. Extracts of both fish species were prepared and fractionated by sodium dodecyl polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). IgE binding patterns were then demonstrated by immunoblotting using sera from patients allergic to the fishes. The raw extracts of both fish produced 26 protein bands. Both species of fishes had similar protein profiles. In cooked extracts, several protein bands in the range of about 40 to 90 kD which were present in the uncooked extracts appeared to be denatured and formed high molecular weight complexes. The immunoblotting of golden snapper and red snapper revealed 16 and 15 various IgE-binding bands, in the range of 151 to 12-11 kD, respectively. A 51 kD protein was identified as a major allergen for both fishes. A 46 kD protein was also demonstrated as a major allergen in golden snapper and a 42 kD protein was also seen as a major allergen in red snapper. A heat-resistant protein of ~12 kD which is equivalent in size with fish parvalbumin was demonstrated only as minor allergen for both fishes.
[82] - Kobayashi A, Tanaka H, Hamada Y, Ishizaki S, Nagashima Y, Shiomi K. Comparison of allergenicity and allergens between fish white and dark muscles. Allergy 2006;61:357-363
BACKGROUND: Fish is one of the most frequent causes of immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated food allergy. Although the fish dark muscle is often ingested with the white muscle, no information about its allergenicity and allergens is available . METHODS: Heated extracts were prepared from both white and dark muscles of five species of fish and examined for reactivity with IgE in fish-allergic patients by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and for allergens by immunoblotting. Cloning of cDNAs encoding parvalbumins was performed by rapid amplification cDNA ends. Parvalbumin contents in both white and dark muscles were determined by ELISA using antiserum against mackerel parvalbumin . RESULTS: Patient sera were less reactive to the heated extract from the dark muscle than to that from the white muscle. A prominent IgE-reactive protein of 12 kDa, which was detected in both white and dark muscles, was identified as parvalbumin. Molecular cloning experiments revealed that the same parvalbumin molecule is contained in both white and dark muscles of either horse mackerel or Pacific mackerel. Parvalbumin contents were four to eight times lower in the dark muscle than in the white muscle . CONCLUSIONS: The fish dark muscle is less allergenic than the white muscle, because the same allergen molecule (parvalbumin) is contained at much lower levels in the dark muscle than in the white muscle. Thus, the dark muscle is less implicated in fish allergy than the white muscle.
[83] - Pascual CY, Reche M, Fiandor A, Valbuena T, Cuevas T, Martin-Esteban MM. Fish allergy in childhood. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2008;19:573-579
Fish and its derived products play an important role in human nutrition, but they may also be a potent food allergen. Fish can be an ingested, contact, and inhalant allergen. Gad c I, a Parvalbumin, the major allergen in codfish, is considered as fish and amphibian pan-allergen. Prevalence of fish allergy appears to depend on the amount of fish eaten in the local diet. In Europe, the highest consumption occurs in Scandinavian countries, Spain and Portugal. In Spain, fish is the third most frequent allergen in children under 2 yr of age after egg and cow's milk. An adverse reaction to fish may be of non-allergic origin, due to food contamination or newly formed toxic products, but the most frequent type of adverse reactions to fish are immunologic-mediated reactions (allergic reactions). Such allergic reactions may be both IgE-mediated and non-IgE-mediated. Most cases are IgE-mediated, due to ingestion or contact with fish or as a result of inhalation of cooking vapors. Some children develop non-IgE-mediated type allergies such as food protein induced enterocolitis syndrome. The clinical symptoms related to IgE-mediated fish allergy are most frequently acute urticaria and angioedema as well as mild oral symptoms, worsening of atopic dermatitis, respiratory symptoms such as rhinitis or asthma, and gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea and vomiting. Anaphylaxis may also occur. Among all the species studied, those from the Tunidae and Xiphiidae families appear to be the least allergenic.
[84] - Bugajska-Schretter A, Elfman L, Fuchs T, Kapiotis S, Rumpold H, Valenta R, et al. Parvalbumin, a cross-reactive fish allergen, contains IgE-binding epitopes sensitive to periodate treatment and Ca2+ depletion. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1998;101:67-74
BACKGROUND: Type I allergy to fish is a severe health problem in countries in which a large percentage of the population derive income from fishing. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to characterize cross-reactive IgE-binding components in six different fish species (cod, tuna, salmon, perch, carp, and eel). The effect of reducing extraction conditions, periodate treatment, and depletion of Ca2+ on binding of IgE to the allergens was investigated. METHODS: Extracts were prepared under nonreducing and reducing conditions. IgE-binding components were characterized by IgE immunoblotting, and cross-reactive epitopes were studied by IgE-immunoblot inhibition experiments. To reveal calcium-sensitive or carbohydrate-containing epitopes, nitrocellulose-blotted extracts were exposed to ethylene glycol bis(beta-aminoethyl ether)-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid (EGTA) and periodate. RESULTS: Sera from all patients allergic to fish (n = 30) displayed IgE reactivity to parvalbumin, a 12 kd protein present in fish extracts from six different species. Reducing extraction conditions had no effect on IgE binding to parvalbumins, whereas periodate treatment and depletion of protein-bound calcium led to a substantial reduction of IgE binding. Parvalbumins from six different species contained cross-reactive IgE epitopes. CONCLUSION: Parvalbumin represents a cross-reactive fish allergen. It contains IgE epitopes that are sensitive to periodate treatment and Ca2+-depletion.
[85] - Bernhisel-Broadbent J, Scanlon SM, Sampson HA. Fish hypersensitivity. I. In vitro and oral challenge results in fish-allergic patients. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1992;89:730-737
The purpose of this study was to determine whether patients allergic to one fish species can safely eat other fish species. Eleven atopic, food-allergic children and young adults with histories consistent with IgE-mediated fish hypersensitivity were skin prick tested to 10 fish species. Skin prick tests (SPTs) were positive to all 10 fish in eight of the 11 patients, and the remaining three patients had at least two positive fish SPTs. Positive oral challenges occurred to only one fish in seven of the patients, to two fish species in one patient, and to three fish species in two patients. One patient did not react to any of the fish tested. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and immunoblot analyses were performed on raw and cooked protein extracts from nine of the 10 fish species used in SPTs. Several protein bands in the raw-fish extracts appeared to denature with cooking and form high molecular weight conglomerates. Immunoblot analyses with sera from documented fish-allergic patients demonstrated specific IgE binding to protein bands from fish to which patients were not clinically allergic, as determined by oral challenge. In ELISA-inhibition assays, the concentration of fish antigen required to achieve 50% inhibition was similar for fish to which the patients were clinically allergic as compared to fish to which they were clinically tolerant. SPT and in vitro evidence of IgE-specific cross-reactivity does not necessarily correlate with symptomatic fish allergy. In addition, these fish-hypersensitive patients were able to consume one or more other fish species without adverse allergic reactions.
[86] - Bardina L, Vukic EJ, Sampson HA, Beyer K. Identification of Additional Allergens in Cooked Salmon. AAAAI 60th Annual Meeting, San Francisco, 19-23 March 2004, Poster n°846
Rationale Fish, including salmon, are a common cause of food allergy. Salmon parvalbumin has been identified as a major allergen; however, other clinically relevant allergens might exist. Method s : Proteins from raw and cooked salmon were extracted and separated by SDS-Page. Immunolabeling was performed with serum from 14 patients; age 2 to 23 years (median 6 years), with salmon-induced reactions. Salmon-specific IgE was measured with the Pharmacia CAP-system FEIA and ranged from 2.24 to 58.5 kU/l (median 8.65 kU/l). Result s : In raw and cooked salmon, protein bands at 12-14 kDa were recognized by serum IgE from 13/14 [93%] patients. This corresponds to Sal s 1, the major salmon parvalbumin. In addition, eight patients showed IgE-binding at 38 kDa in cooked salmon only. Analysis of clinical data for these eight patients showed no difference in IgE level or age. Two patients had strong IgE-binding to proteins at 98 kDa and approximately 70 kDa in the cooked salmon extract only. One also showed IgE-binding at 16 kDa. Most importantly, the one patient without parvalbumin-specific IgE recognized the 34, 70 and 98 kDa proteins. Using Proteomic approaches these proteins will be further characterized. Conclusions : Our study confirmed that salmon parvalbumin is the major salmon allergen. However, immunoblotting with serum from highly salmon allergic patients identified additional proteins that may play an important role, especially in salmon-allergic patients without specific IgE to paravalbumin.
[87] - Rosmilah M, Shahnaz M, Masita A, Noormalin A, Jamaludin M. Identification of major allergens of two species of local snappers: Lutjanus argentimaculatus (merah/ red snapper) and Lutjanus johnii (jenahak/ golden snapper). Trop Biomed 2005;22:171-177
Fish has been recognized as a source of potent allergens both in food and occupational allergy. Lutjanus argentimaculatus (red snapper) and Lutjanus johnii (golden snapper) locally known as merah and jenahak, respectively, are among the most commonly consumed fish in Malaysia. The objective of this study is to identify the IgE-binding proteins and major allergens of these species of fishes. Extracts of both fish species were prepared and fractionated by sodium dodecyl polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). IgE binding patterns were then demonstrated by immunoblotting using sera from patients allergic to the fishes. The raw extracts of both fish produced 26 protein bands. Both species of fishes had similar protein profiles. In cooked extracts, several protein bands in the range of about 40 to 90 kD which were present in the uncooked extracts appeared to be denatured and formed high molecular weight complexes. The immunoblotting of golden snapper and red snapper revealed 16 and 15 various IgE-binding bands, in the range of 151 to 12-11 kD, respectively. A 51 kD protein was identified as a major allergen for both fishes. A 46 kD protein was also demonstrated as a major allergen in golden snapper and a 42 kD protein was also seen as a major allergen in red snapper. A heat-resistant protein of ~12 kD which is equivalent in size with fish parvalbumin was demonstrated only as minor allergen for both fishes.
[88] - Ma Y, Griesmeier U, Susani M, Radauer C, Briza P, Erler A, et al. Comparison of natural and recombinant forms of the major fish allergen parvalbumin from cod and carp. Mol Nutr Food Res 2008;52(suppl. 2):S196-S207
Allergic reaction following fish consumption can trigger life-threatening reactions in predisposed individuals. Parvalbumins from different species have been identified as the major fish allergens. There are two distinct phylogenetic lineages of parvalbumins, alpha and beta. Most allergic reactions are caused by beta-parvalbumins. We cloned and expressed cDNAs encoding cod (Gadus morhua) and carp (Cyprinus carpio) beta-parvalbumins and purified natural cod beta-parvalbumin. CD spectra of the purified proteins showed that their overall secondary structure contents were very similar. No differences in thermal stability were monitored in the calcium-bound or calcium-depleted form of natural cod parvalbumin. IgE reactivity was assessed using 26 sera of fish allergic patients from Spain, The Netherlands, and Greece in immunoblot and ELISA experiments. Twenty-five of the 26 patients with IgE reactivity to native and recombinant cod parvalbumin also reacted to the recombinant carp parvalbumin. IgE inhibition assays were performed using cod and carp extracts and purified recombinant parvalbumin of cod and carp. High crossreactivity among cod and carp parvalbumins was observed in immunoblots as well as in fluid phase assays. Natural and recombinant parvalbumins gave comparable results when performing various in vitro diagnostic assays.
[89] - Griesmeier U, Vazquez-Cortés S, Bublin M, Fernandez-Rivas M, Breiteneder H. Effect of pH on thermal stability and IgE binding ability of whiff parvalbumin. Allergy 2008;63(suppl. 88):424
Background: The major allergen of most fish, beta-parvalbumin, is a calcium-binding sarcoplasmic protein which is described as cross-reactive. In Spain, where fish consumption is high, allergy against whiff is frequent. We aimed to determine the thermal stability of whiff (Lepidorhombus whiffiagonis) parvalbumin by circular dichroism spectroscopy (CD) and IgE ELISA inhibition experiments. Methods: Parvalbumin was purified from a protein extract of whiff by a combination of chromatographical methods. Molecular mass was determined by ESI-QTOF and the partial amino acid sequence was obtained by NanoLC-MSMS-based peptide mapping. The effect of pH on thermal stability on native or calcium-depleted protein was determined by CD. Further, the IgE binding ability of the treated allergen was determined by ELISA inhibition assays with four patients‚ sera allergic to fish parvalbumins. Results: Thirty milligrams whiff beta-parvalbumin were extracted from 100 g of fish. Mass spectroscopic analysis of the purified protein revealed the presence of only one peak at 11.6 kDa. The CD analysis of the calcium-bound protein revealed a remarkable thermal stability and refolding capacity. According to these observations the heattreated protein was able to inhibit IgE binding of four patients‚sera to the native protein by 100%. Calcium depletion induced a loss of the broad minimum at 222nm but the IgE binding could still be inhibited by 100%. Additionally, the native protein under alkaline conditions showed a melting point at around 55°C and could inhibit the IgE binding to the native protein in a range of 60 to 100%. Conclusion: Confirmed by ELISA inhibition assays, the calcium-bound whiff parvalbumin revealed a remarkable thermal stability. A decrease of the alpha helical content of the calcium-depleted protein did not reduce the IgE binding ability.
[91] - Bernhisel-Broadbent J, Scanlon SM, Sampson HA. Fish hypersensitivity. I. In vitro and oral challenge results in fish-allergic patients. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1992;89:730-737
The purpose of this study was to determine whether patients allergic to one fish species can safely eat other fish species. Eleven atopic, food-allergic children and young adults with histories consistent with IgE-mediated fish hypersensitivity were skin prick tested to 10 fish species. Skin prick tests (SPTs) were positive to all 10 fish in eight of the 11 patients, and the remaining three patients had at least two positive fish SPTs. Positive oral challenges occurred to only one fish in seven of the patients, to two fish species in one patient, and to three fish species in two patients. One patient did not react to any of the fish tested. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and immunoblot analyses were performed on raw and cooked protein extracts from nine of the 10 fish species used in SPTs. Several protein bands in the raw-fish extracts appeared to denature with cooking and form high molecular weight conglomerates. Immunoblot analyses with sera from documented fish-allergic patients demonstrated specific IgE binding to protein bands from fish to which patients were not clinically allergic, as determined by oral challenge. In ELISA-inhibition assays, the concentration of fish antigen required to achieve 50% inhibition was similar for fish to which the patients were clinically allergic as compared to fish to which they were clinically tolerant. SPT and in vitro evidence of IgE-specific cross-reactivity does not necessarily correlate with symptomatic fish allergy. In addition, these fish-hypersensitive patients were able to consume one or more other fish species without adverse allergic reactions.
[92] - Chatterjee U, Mondal G, Chakraborti P, Patra HK, Chatterjee BP. Changes in the Allergenicity during Different Preparations of Pomfret, Hilsa, Bhetki and Mackerel Fish as Illustrated by ELISA and Immunoblotting. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2006;141:1-10
BACKGROUND: Although the identification and characterization of several fish allergens have already been reported, there is almost no data on Indian fish allergens and the effect of thermal processing on their allergenicity. This study aimed at the evaluation of the changes in the level of allergenicity of 4 highly consumed Indian fishes, i.e. pomfret, hilsa, bhetki and mackerel, that occurred after boiling and frying . METHODS: In this study 110 patients with fish hypersensitivity as evidenced by clinical history and symptoms were recruited based on their positive skin prick test results. The raw, boiled and fried muscle extracts of the 4 fishes were prepared, and each extract was tested by ELISA and immunoblotting with patients' sera . RESULTS: ELISA and immunoblotting studies demonstrated that the raw muscle extracts of pomfret, hilsa, bhetki and mackerel were allergenic. While the allergenicity of boiled and fried extracts of pomfret and hilsa was considerably reduced, maximum allergenicity of bhetki was demonstrated in the fried extract. The degree of allergenicity of bhetki was demonstrated in the order fried>boiled>raw while that of mackerel followed the order raw>boiled approximately fried . CONCLUSION: The specific IgE-binding activity and immunoblot profile clearly showed that pomfret and hilsa fish allergens are heat-labile, while allergens of bhetki and mackerel maintained strong reactivity even after thermal treatment
[93] - Lopata AL, Jeebhay MF, Reese G, Fernandes J, Swoboda I, Robins TG, et al. Detection of Fish Antigens Aerosolized during Fish Processing Using Newly Developed Immunoassays. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2005;138:21-28
BACKGROUND: Aerosolization of fish proteins during seafood processing has been identified as a potential route for allergic sensitization and occupational asthma among workers involved in high-risk activities. The aim of this study was to develop immunological assays for the quantification of aerosolized fish antigens in a fish-processing factory . METHODS: Polyclonal antibodies to the main fish species processed in the factory (anchovy and pilchard) were generated in rabbits and compared by ELISA inhibition assay and immunoblotting. These antisera were utilized to develop ELISA assays for the detection of fish antigens. The ELISA inhibition assays were evaluated by analyzing environmental air samples collected from three areas in a fish-processing factory: pilchard canning, fish meal production and lobster processing . RESULTS: By immunoblotting, the rabbit polyclonal antibodies demonstrated IgG antibody binding patterns comparable with IgE antibodies of fish-sensitized patients, particularly in regard to the major fish allergens parvalbumins. The sensitivity of the fish-specific ELISA assays developed was 0.5 microg/ml. The ELISA inhibition assays were able to differentiate between the two different fish species of interest but did not recognize a crustacean species. Notable differences in exposure levels to canned pilchard and anchovy antigens were demonstrated in the three different working areas of the factory, with assays having a detection limit as low as 105 ng/m(3) . CONCLUSION: These ELISA-based assays are sensitive and specific to quantify differential exposure levels to fish antigens produced during fish processing, making it possible to investigate exposure-disease response relationships among workers in this industry.
[94] - Chatterjee U, Mondal G, Chakraborti P, Patra HK, Chatterjee BP. Changes in the Allergenicity during Different Preparations of Pomfret, Hilsa, Bhetki and Mackerel Fish as Illustrated by ELISA and Immunoblotting. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2006;141:1-10
BACKGROUND: Although the identification and characterization of several fish allergens have already been reported, there is almost no data on Indian fish allergens and the effect of thermal processing on their allergenicity. This study aimed at the evaluation of the changes in the level of allergenicity of 4 highly consumed Indian fishes, i.e. pomfret, hilsa, bhetki and mackerel, that occurred after boiling and frying . METHODS: In this study 110 patients with fish hypersensitivity as evidenced by clinical history and symptoms were recruited based on their positive skin prick test results. The raw, boiled and fried muscle extracts of the 4 fishes were prepared, and each extract was tested by ELISA and immunoblotting with patients' sera . RESULTS: ELISA and immunoblotting studies demonstrated that the raw muscle extracts of pomfret, hilsa, bhetki and mackerel were allergenic. While the allergenicity of boiled and fried extracts of pomfret and hilsa was considerably reduced, maximum allergenicity of bhetki was demonstrated in the fried extract. The degree of allergenicity of bhetki was demonstrated in the order fried>boiled>raw while that of mackerel followed the order raw>boiled approximately fried . CONCLUSION: The specific IgE-binding activity and immunoblot profile clearly showed that pomfret and hilsa fish allergens are heat-labile, while allergens of bhetki and mackerel maintained strong reactivity even after thermal treatment
[95] - Mondal G, Chatterjee U, Samanta S, Chatterjee BP. Role of pepsin in modifying the allergenicity of bhetki (Lates calcarifer) and mackerel (Rastrelliger kanagurta) fish. Indian J Biochem Biophys 2007;44:94-100
The effect of pepsin digestion on the allergenicity of raw and thermally processed (boiled and fried) fish muscle extracts of two widely consumed fishes bhetki (Lates calcarifer) and mackerel (Rastrelliger kanagurta) was studied. Sere were collected from 110 patients who were hypersensitive to fish, as evidenced by their clinical history, symptoms and positive skin-prick test results. The various extracts after digestion with pepsin at different times of incubation were tested for specific IgE-binding activity by ELISA and immunoblotting with patients' sera. All the extracts of both the fishes retained their allergenicity as evidenced by ELISA and immunoblotting. In bhetki, maximum allergenicity was found in the pepsin-digested fried extract, whereas similar treatment decreased the allergenicity in fried mackerel. Results showed that raw as well as thermally processed allergens of both the fishes maintained strong allergenicity, even after digestion with pepsin for different time periods. The study revealed that the fish proteins played an important role in manifestation of allergy, due to their stable structure, which was retained even after pepsin and heat treatment.
[97] - Sletten G, Egaas E, Lindvik H, Van Do T, Florvaag E. Effects of industrial processing of commonly ingested fish species on fish protein allergenicity. Allergy 2007;62(suppl. 83):328
Background: Fish is among the most common foods which induce IgE-mediated type I food allergy and is also known to elicit severe food anaphylaxis. Fish has been taken up in the European Union declaration guideline for allergenic foods (Directive 2003/89/EC), which under Annex IIIa states that the presence of fish, or products derived from fish, in foodstuffs should be clearly and specifically indicated on the label. Little is known about the changes in allergenicity when fish is industrially processed. Methods: In the present study, we purchased samples of fresh and cured fish (smoked, salted/sugar-cured, canned, lye-treated and fermented products of cod, haddock, salmon, tuna, mackerel and trout). The effects of processing on the protein profiles of the fish products were studied using SDS-PAGE. The immunogenicity of the fish products was measured using polyclonal rabbit anti-cod parvalbumin (immunoblot). Allergenicity of the proteins/peptides in the products was studied using immunoblot, binding fish-specific IgE from a serum pool of six confirmed fish-allergic patients. Results: Processing in general caused the loss of some protein bands (SDS-PAGE) and intensification of others. Novel bands were seen in cod after salting and drying, and in haddock and salmon after smoking, whereas fewer bands were seen in smoked mackerel. Protein band intensity and number appeared most susceptible to canning, lye-treatment and fermentation. Immunoblot using anti-parvalbumin showed that fermentation (salmon, trout) or lye-treatment (cod) had relatively little effect, whereas salting/drying (cod) and smoking (salmon, mackerel) appeared to increase immunogenicity. IgE binding was increased by lye-treatment (cod) and by fermentation of salmon but not of trout. Smoking appeared to have little effect on IgE-binding in salmon and haddock. IgE binding was greatly reduced in smoked mackerel and in salted cod. Discussion: We have observed not only differences in protein profiles between the different species of fish, but also clear alterations in these profiles following processing of the relevant fish. Immunogenicity, shown using immunoblot, varied between the various fish species and between fresh and processed products from the same species. IgE binding patterns also varied considerably between the different fish species and the patterns differed clearly between processed and fresh fish of the same species.
[98] - Sletten G, Egaas E, Lindvik H, Van Do T, Florvaag E. Effects of industrial processing of commonly ingested fish species on fish protein allergenicity. Allergy 2007;62(suppl. 83):328
Background: Fish is among the most common foods which induce IgE-mediated type I food allergy and is also known to elicit severe food anaphylaxis. Fish has been taken up in the European Union declaration guideline for allergenic foods (Directive 2003/89/EC), which under Annex IIIa states that the presence of fish, or products derived from fish, in foodstuffs should be clearly and specifically indicated on the label. Little is known about the changes in allergenicity when fish is industrially processed. Methods: In the present study, we purchased samples of fresh and cured fish (smoked, salted/sugar-cured, canned, lye-treated and fermented products of cod, haddock, salmon, tuna, mackerel and trout). The effects of processing on the protein profiles of the fish products were studied using SDS-PAGE. The immunogenicity of the fish products was measured using polyclonal rabbit anti-cod parvalbumin (immunoblot). Allergenicity of the proteins/peptides in the products was studied using immunoblot, binding fish-specific IgE from a serum pool of six confirmed fish-allergic patients. Results: Processing in general caused the loss of some protein bands (SDS-PAGE) and intensification of others. Novel bands were seen in cod after salting and drying, and in haddock and salmon after smoking, whereas fewer bands were seen in smoked mackerel. Protein band intensity and number appeared most susceptible to canning, lye-treatment and fermentation. Immunoblot using anti-parvalbumin showed that fermentation (salmon, trout) or lye-treatment (cod) had relatively little effect, whereas salting/drying (cod) and smoking (salmon, mackerel) appeared to increase immunogenicity. IgE binding was increased by lye-treatment (cod) and by fermentation of salmon but not of trout. Smoking appeared to have little effect on IgE-binding in salmon and haddock. IgE binding was greatly reduced in smoked mackerel and in salted cod. Discussion: We have observed not only differences in protein profiles between the different species of fish, but also clear alterations in these profiles following processing of the relevant fish. Immunogenicity, shown using immunoblot, varied between the various fish species and between fresh and processed products from the same species. IgE binding patterns also varied considerably between the different fish species and the patterns differed clearly between processed and fresh fish of the same species.
[101] - Untersmayr E, Poulsen LK, Platzer MH, Pedersen MH, Boltz-Nitulescu G, Stahl Skov P, et al. The effects of gastric digestion on codfish allergenicity. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005;115:377-382
BACKGROUND: In a recent murine study, we showed that impaired gastric digestion supports the induction of fish allergy by protecting the digestion-sensitive major allergen parvalbumin and thus enhancing its sensitizing properties . OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study was to investigate whether impairment of peptic degradation might also play a role in the effector phase of codfish allergy . METHODS: The resistance of cod proteins to digestion by simulated gastric fluid was assessed in vitro . Gastric solutions with pH values ranging from 1.25 to 5.0 were prepared, and the influence of the pH on protein degradation was evaluated by means of SDS-PAGE and IgE immunoblotting. The allergenic potency of digested and undigested cod extract was further characterized in RAST inhibition and basophil histamine release experiments . RESULTS: The digestion experiments revealed that codfish proteins were degraded within 1 minute under physiologic gastric conditions. An only marginal pH shift from 2.5 to 2.75 abrogated completely the digestion of cod allergens. In RAST inhibition experiments digested cod extracts showed a reduced IgE-binding capability that was dependent on the digestion time. Moreover, peptic fragments expressed a 10,000 times reduced allergenic potency, as evaluated on the basis of histamine release from human basophils . CONCLUSION: Codfish allergens have a grossly reduced ability to trigger an intestinal allergic reaction when they are physiologically degraded. Impairment of the physiologic digestion might thus lower the threshold levels of a food allergen in sensitized patients.
[102] - Untersmayr E, Vestergaard H, Malling HJ, Jensen LB, Platzer MH, Boltz-Nitulescu G, et al. Incomplete digestion of codfish represents a risk factor for anaphylaxis in patients with allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2007;119:711-717
BACKGROUND: Fish represents one of the most important allergenic foods causing severe allergic reactions. Nevertheless, it has been shown that gastric digestion significantly reduces its allergenic capacity . OBJECTIVE: In this study, we assessed the absorption kinetics of fish proteins and investigated the clinical reactivity of patients with fish allergy to codfish digested at physiological or elevated gastric pH . METHODS: Healthy individuals were openly challenged with codfish and blood samples were evaluated by histamine release for absorbed fish allergens. Patients with allergy were recruited on the basis of previously diagnosed codfish allergy. Fish extracts were digested with gastric enzymes at pH 2.0 and 3.0 and used for histamine release, skin prick tests, and titrated double-blind placebo-controlled food challenges . RESULTS: Ingestion experiments in subjects without allergy revealed absorption of biologically active fish allergens only 10 minutes after ingestion with maximal serum levels after 1 to 2 hours. Incubation of fish proteins with digestive enzymes at pH 2.0 resulted in a fragmentation of the proteins leading to a reduced biological activity evidenced by a significantly smaller wheal reaction and reduced histamine release. Fish digested at pH 3.0 revealed comparable reactivity patterns as undigested extracts. Moreover, these test materials triggered reactions at 10-fold to 30-fold lower cumulated challenge doses in patients with allergy . CONCLUSION: Our data indicate the paramount importance of gastric digestion for fish allergens because the quantitatively significant absorption and elicitation of symptoms seemed to take place in the intestine. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Hindered digestion puts patients with fish allergy at risk to develop severe allergic reactions at minute amounts of allergens.
[103] - Untersmayr E, Vestergaard H, Malling HJ, Jensen LB, Platzer MH, Boltz-Nitulescu G, et al. Incomplete digestion of codfish represents a risk factor for anaphylaxis in patients with allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2007;119:711-717
BACKGROUND: Fish represents one of the most important allergenic foods causing severe allergic reactions. Nevertheless, it has been shown that gastric digestion significantly reduces its allergenic capacity . OBJECTIVE: In this study, we assessed the absorption kinetics of fish proteins and investigated the clinical reactivity of patients with fish allergy to codfish digested at physiological or elevated gastric pH . METHODS: Healthy individuals were openly challenged with codfish and blood samples were evaluated by histamine release for absorbed fish allergens. Patients with allergy were recruited on the basis of previously diagnosed codfish allergy. Fish extracts were digested with gastric enzymes at pH 2.0 and 3.0 and used for histamine release, skin prick tests, and titrated double-blind placebo-controlled food challenges . RESULTS: Ingestion experiments in subjects without allergy revealed absorption of biologically active fish allergens only 10 minutes after ingestion with maximal serum levels after 1 to 2 hours. Incubation of fish proteins with digestive enzymes at pH 2.0 resulted in a fragmentation of the proteins leading to a reduced biological activity evidenced by a significantly smaller wheal reaction and reduced histamine release. Fish digested at pH 3.0 revealed comparable reactivity patterns as undigested extracts. Moreover, these test materials triggered reactions at 10-fold to 30-fold lower cumulated challenge doses in patients with allergy . CONCLUSION: Our data indicate the paramount importance of gastric digestion for fish allergens because the quantitatively significant absorption and elicitation of symptoms seemed to take place in the intestine. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Hindered digestion puts patients with fish allergy at risk to develop severe allergic reactions at minute amounts of allergens.
[104] - Morzel M, Chambon C, Lefevre F, Paboeuf G, Laville E. Modifications of trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) muscle proteins by preslaughter activity. J Agric Food Chem 2006;54:2997-3001
The effect of two different preslaughter procedures (limited or 15-min intense muscular activity) on muscle trout proteins was investigated. Muscle was sampled 45 min and 24 h post-mortem, proteins were separated using two-dimensional electrophoresis, and spots of interest were tentatively identified by MALDI-TOF spectrometry. Twenty-nine and 4 spots were differentially represented between the two groups of fish at 45 min and 24 h post-mortem, respectively. Spots that could be identified corresponded mainly to proteins involved in energy-producing pathways (triosephosphate isomerase, enolase, pyruvate dehydrogenase) or to structural proteins (desmin, cap-Z, myosin heavy chain fragment). Persistent under-representation of desmin, a key cytoskeletal protein, in fish submitted to intense muscular activity suggests that such a preslaughter treatment can have an effect on post-mortem muscle integrity.
[105] - Delbarre-Ladrat C, Cheret R, Taylor R, Verrez-Bagnis V. Trends in postmortem aging in fish: understanding of proteolysis and disorganization of the myofibrillar structure. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2006;46:409-421
Postmortem tenderization is caused by enzymatic degradation of key structural proteins in myofibrils as well as in extracellular matrix, and of proteins involved in intermyofibrillar linkages and linkages between myofibrils and the sarcolemma. The function of these proteins is to maintain the structural integrity of myofibrils. Current data indicate that calpains and cathepsins may be responsible for degradation of these proteins. Other phenomena occurring in cells postmortem (pH drop, sarcoplasmic Ca2+ increase, osmotic pressure rise, oxidative processes) may act in synergy with proteases. Our understanding of the underlying mechanisms of muscle degradation should be improved for an accurate evaluation of the postmortem muscle changes and consequently of the fish quality.
[106] - Dory D, Chopin C, Aimone-Gastin I, Guéant JL, Guérin L, Sainte-Laudy J, et al. Recognition of an extensive range of IgE-reactive proteins in cod extract. Allergy 1998;53:42-50
Allergy to fish is one of the most common food allergies. Gad c 1 is the only fish allergen which has been purified and characterized. Other allergens have been detected by Western blot in cod extracts. We have now improved the Western-blot procedure in order to characterize fish IgE-reactive proteins from extracts prepared under different conditions: pre-rigor mortis and post-rigor mortis, EDTA addition or not, and DEAE ion-exchange chromatography. Several IgE-reactive protein bands have been identified over a wide molecular-weight range. In particular, the 104- and 130-kDa IgE-reactive protein bands were detected. These new bands may correspond to aggregates, as EDTA increased the relative amount of the 60-, 67-, 104-, and 130-kDa IgE-reactive protein bands in Western blot. All these bands were also detected by antiparvalbumin monoclonal antibody, specific to the first calcium-binding site. The longer period of storage increased the relative amounts of the 41-, 80-, 104-, and 130-kDa IgE-reactive protein bands. The 18-kDa band was detected only in fish stored for several days. In conclusion, we have described IgE-reactive protein bands over a wide molecular-weight range (12-130 kDa) in Western blot of cod extract, and shown that EDTA and storage conditions may influence the relative distribution of IgE-reactive protein bands.
[108] - Das Dores S, Chopin C, Romano A, Galland-Irmouli AV, Quaratino D, Pascual C, et al. IgE-binding and cross-reactivity of a new 41 kDa allergen of codfish. Allergy 2002;57(Suppl. 72):84-87
BACKGROUND: A 41-kDa IgE-reactive protein (p41) was purified from raw cod extract. This protein is homologous to an aldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase (APDH). The present study aims to evaluate the IgE-binding and the cross-reactivity of this protein in 13 patients allergic to codfish . METHODS: IgE binding of sera from 13 patients allergic to codfish was tested by Sepharose RIA and by Western blot . RESULTS: Among the 13 patients, only 4 had specific IgE to APDH detected by APDH-Sepharose RIA. The two patients who had the highest level of specific IgE to human APDH also had a class 5-6 CAP-RAST IgE level to codfish, but two other patients with a class 5 had a negative APDH-Sepharose IgE-RIA. Relative content of APDH was higher in extracts of commercial nonfrozen fish, compared to pre rigor mortis, post rigor mortis and frozen commercial codfish. A high homology of codfish APDH was found with the corresponding human enzyme. A significant inhibition of APDH-Sepharose by human and, to a lesser extent, by rabbit APDH was observed. Western blot of APDH codfish extract showed two bands at 41 and 36 kDa, respectively . CONCLUSIONS: We have characterized a new allergen from codfish, which had a high level of homology in different species. The p41 relative content of extracts from nonfrozen codfish was higher than in the other samples assessed.
[109] - Baron CP, Kjærsgård IV, Jessen F, Jacobsen C. Protein and Lipid Oxidation during Frozen Storage of Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). J Agric Food Chem 2007;55:8118-8125
This study aimed at investigating protein and lipid oxidation during frozen storage of rainbow trout. Rainbow trout fillets were stored for 13 months at -20, -30, or -80 degrees C, and samples were analyzed at regular intervals for lipid and protein oxidation markers. Lipid oxidation was followed by measuring lipid hydroperoxides (PV), as well as secondary oxidation products (volatiles) using dynamic headspace GC-MS. Free fatty acids (FFA) were measured as an estimation of lipolysis. Protein oxidation was followed using the spectrophotometric determination of protein carbonyls and immunoblotting. Significant oxidation was observed in samples stored at -20 degrees C, and at this temperature lipid and protein oxidation seemed to develop simultaneously. FFA, PV, and carbonyls increased significantly for the fish stored at -20 degrees C, whereas the fish stored at -30 and -80 degrees C did not show any increase in oxidation during the entire storage period when these methods were used. In contrast, the more sensitive GC-MS method used for measurement of the volatiles showed that the fish stored at -30 degrees C oxidized more quickly than those stored at -80 degrees C. Detection of protein oxidation using immunoblotting revealed that high molecular weight proteins were oxidized already at t = 0 and that no new protein oxidized during storage irrespective of the storage time and temperature. The results emphasize the need for the development of more sensitive and reliable methods to study protein oxidation in order to gain more explicit knowledge about the significance of protein oxidation for food quality and, especially, to correlate protein oxidation with physical and functional properties of foods.
[110] - Min B, Green BW. Use of Microbial Transglutaminase and Nonmeat Proteins to Improve Functional Properties of Low NaCl, Phosphate-Free Patties Made from Channel Catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) Belly Flap Meat. J Food Sci 2008;73:E218-E225
ABSTRACT: This study was aimed at developing value-added low sodium chloride (NaCl), phosphate-free restructured patties using minced channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) belly flap meat. The effect of microbial transglutaminase (MTGase) and nonmeat proteins (isolated soy protein, ISP, and whey protein concentrate, WPC; 1.7%, respectively) alone and in combination were evaluated to improve cooking yield and textural properties in patties with reduced NaCl and no phosphate. The concentration effect of MTGase (0.05% to 0.7%) was also studied. The addition of MTGase increased textural properties such as binding strength, hardness, cohesiveness, chewiness, and springiness, but decreased cooking yield of the patties (P < 0.05). Isolated soy protein increased cooking yield (P < 0.05), but did not affect textural properties. Inclusion of WPC did not increase cooking yield or impact textural properties of patties. The combination of MTGase and ISP significantly increased both the cooking yield and textural properties of patties. As the concentration of MTGase increased at constant ISP, the textural properties of cooked patties significantly increased, but cooking yield decreased (P < 0.05). In conclusion, we suggest that the combination of 0.05% to 0.1% of MTGase with 1.7% ISP is optimal for development of a low NaCl, phosphate-free patty using minced catfish belly flap meat.
[111] - Pedersen MH, Hansen TK, Sten E, Seguro K, Ohtsuka T, Morita A, et al. Evaluation of the potential allergenicity of the enzyme microbial transglutaminase using the 2001 FAO/WHO Decision Tree. Mol Nutr Food Res 2004;48:434-440
All novel proteins must be assessed for their potential allergenicity before they are introduced into the food market. One method to achieve this is the 2001 FAO/WHO Decision Tree recommended for evaluation of proteins from genetically modified organisms (GMOs). It was the aim of this study to investigate the allergenicity of microbial transglutaminase (m-TG) from Streptoverticillium mobaraense. Amino acid sequence similarity to known allergens, pepsin resistance, and detection of protein binding to specific serum immunoglobulin E (IgE) (RAST) have been evaluated as recommended by the decision tree. Allergenicity in the source material was thought unlikely, since no IgE-mediated allergy to any bacteria has been reported. m-TG is fully degraded after 5 min of pepsin treatment. A database search showed that the enzyme has no homology with known allergens, down to a match of six contiguous amino acids, which meets the requirements of the decision tree. However, there is a match at the five contiguous amino acid level to the major codfish allergen Gad c1. The potential cross reactivity between m-TG and Gad c1 was investigated in RAST using sera from 25 documented cod-allergic patients and an extract of raw codfish. No binding between patient IgE and m-TG was observed. It can be concluded that no safety concerns with regard to the allergenic potential of m-TG were identified.
[112] - Malandain H. Transglutaminases : a meeting point for wheat allergy, celiac disease, and food safety. Eur Ann Allergy Clin Immunol 2005;37:397-403
Wheat is the staple cereal in many countries and its uses in manufactured foods are ever growing due to the technological qualities of gluten proteins. Transglutaminases (TG) are ubiquitous enzymes with many functions. They are able to transform proteins by deamidation and/or transamidation. This last reaction can cross-link proteins together. Intestinal tissue TG has been shown to play an important role in two kinds of immune reactions to wheat: celiac disease and wheat-dependent exercise-induced anaphylaxis. In addition, new epitopes have been suspected in cases of anaphylaxis to wheat isolates, a food ingredient consisting mainly of deamidated gluten proteins. As a microbial TG is included in many food technological processes, its safe use should be checked. This assessment must cover not only the safety of the TG itself but also that of the deamidated/cross-linked proteins generated by this enzyme. This article aims at discussing the possible consequences of using TG in food industry in the light of today knowledge about immune reactions to wheat.
[113] - Wild LG, Lehrer SB. Fish and shellfish allergy. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2005;5:74-79
Fish and shellfish are important in the American diet and economy. Nearly $27 billion are spent each year in the United States on seafood products. Fish and shellfish are also important causes of food hypersensitivity. In fact, shellfish constitute the number one cause of food allergy in the American adult. During the past decade, much has been learned about allergens in fish and shellfish. The major allergens responsible for cross-reactivity among distinct species of fish and amphibians are parvalbumins. The major shellfish allergen has been identified as tropomyosin. Many new and important potential cross-reacting allergens have been identified within the fish family and between shellfish, arachnids, and insects. Extensive research is currently underway for the development of safer and more effective methods for the diagnosis and management of fish and shellfish hypersensitivity.
[114] - Chegini S, Metcalfe DD. Seafood toxin-induced disease in the differential diagnosis of allergic reactions. Allergy Asthma Proc 2005;26:183-190
Seafood, including fish, shrimp, lobster, crab, crayfish, mussel, and clam are among the most frequent causes of food allergy. Seafood poisoning, including reactions to natural toxins, frequently masquerades as an allergic reaction on presentation. Ingestion of contaminated shellfish results in a wide variety of symptoms, depending on the toxins present, their concentrations in the shellfish, and the amount of contaminated shellfish consumed. Five types of shellfish poisoning have been identified clearly including paralytic, neurotoxic, diarrhetic, amnestic, and azaspiracid shellfish poisonings. Based on the presence or absence of the toxin at the time of capture, fish poisoning can be considered conceptually in two categories. In ciguatera and puffer fish poisoning, the toxin is present in live fish, whereas in scombroid, it is produced only after capture, in the fish flesh, by contaminating bacteria because of improper refrigeration. Most shellfish-associated illness is infectious in nature (bacterial or viral), with the Norwalk virus accounting for most cases of gastroenteritis.
[115] - Bernhisel-Broadbent J, Scanlon SM, Sampson HA. Fish hypersensitivity. I. In vitro and oral challenge results in fish-allergic patients. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1992;89:730-737
The purpose of this study was to determine whether patients allergic to one fish species can safely eat other fish species. Eleven atopic, food-allergic children and young adults with histories consistent with IgE-mediated fish hypersensitivity were skin prick tested to 10 fish species. Skin prick tests (SPTs) were positive to all 10 fish in eight of the 11 patients, and the remaining three patients had at least two positive fish SPTs. Positive oral challenges occurred to only one fish in seven of the patients, to two fish species in one patient, and to three fish species in two patients. One patient did not react to any of the fish tested. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and immunoblot analyses were performed on raw and cooked protein extracts from nine of the 10 fish species used in SPTs. Several protein bands in the raw-fish extracts appeared to denature with cooking and form high molecular weight conglomerates. Immunoblot analyses with sera from documented fish-allergic patients demonstrated specific IgE binding to protein bands from fish to which patients were not clinically allergic, as determined by oral challenge. In ELISA-inhibition assays, the concentration of fish antigen required to achieve 50% inhibition was similar for fish to which the patients were clinically allergic as compared to fish to which they were clinically tolerant. SPT and in vitro evidence of IgE-specific cross-reactivity does not necessarily correlate with symptomatic fish allergy. In addition, these fish-hypersensitive patients were able to consume one or more other fish species without adverse allergic reactions.
[116] - Helbling A, McCants ML, Musmand JJ, Schwartz HJ, Lehrer SB. Immunopathogenesis of fish allergy: identification of fish-allergic adults by skin test and radioallergosorbent test. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1996;77:48-54
As the consumption of fish increases in the United States, the importance of allergic reactions to fish has become clear. Since most previous studies on fish allergy have focused on children reacting mainly to codfish, there is a need to investigate allergic reactions to other fish in adults. OBJECTIVE: To identify fish-allergic adults, and to assess cross-reactivity among different species of fish by RAST inhibition. METHODS: Thirty-nine individuals who reported fish allergy were selected for study; 32 (82%) were atopic as defined by two or more positive skin tests to common inhalant allergens and a history of allergic reactions and 33 (85%) experienced allergic symptoms within 30 minutes after ingesting fish. The most frequently reported symptoms were hives (69%), itching (69%), and wheezing/chest tightness (54%). Study subjects were skin tested with fish extracts and their sera assayed for IgE antibodies to different fish species. RESULTS: Thirty-six (92%) of the subjects tested had a positive skin test to at least one of 17 fish extracts tested; 9/35 (26%) reacted to all 17 extracts. Of the atopic (two or more positive skin tests to common inhalant allergens plus a personal and/or family history of allergy) and nonatopic fish-tolerant controls, 20/26 (77%) reacted by skin test to one or more fish extracts tested; the most prevalent positive reaction was to anchovy (73%). A significant correlation (P < .01) was observed between skin test reactivity of fish-allergic subjects to most fish extracts and fish RAST reactions. Radioallergosorbent inhibition testing demonstrated significant cross-reactivity among pollack, salmon, trout, and tuna; and between mackerel and anchovy. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that fish-allergic subjects may be clinically sensitive to more than one species of fish. Skin test reactivity to fish by itself is not an adequate criterion for the confirmation of clinically relevant fish allergy; consequently, fish-allergic subjects with positive skin tests to several fish species should exercise caution when eating fish until tolerance can be demonstrated by double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenge, at the patient's earliest convenience.
[117] - Helbling A, Haydel R Jr, McCants ML, Musmand JJ, El-Dahr J, Lehrer SB. Fish allergy: is cross-reactivity among fish species relevant? Double-blind placebo-controlled food challenge studies of fish allergic adults. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1999;83:517-523
Allergic reactions to fish are a common cause of food allergy in many areas of the world where fish is a major source of protein. Although different species of fish may be consumed, possible cross-reactivity has received limited investigation. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to assess potential cross-reactivity to different species of fish species using double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenges (DBPCFC) in fish-allergic adults and to compare skin test and RAST reactivity with the challenge response. METHODS: Nine skin prick test and/or RAST-positive adult individuals with histories of an immediate-type reaction following fish ingestion were challenged with different fish species using double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenge. RESULTS: Of a total of 19 double-blind, placebo-controlled fish challenges performed, 14 challenges (74%) resulted in the induction of objective signs that were consistent with an IgE-mediated response. The most common sign observed was emesis (37%); the most prevalent subjective symptoms reported were compatible with the oral allergy syndrome (84%). Three subjects reacted to at least three fish species and one subject reacted to two fish species tested. In regard to the positive challenges, predictive accuracy of skin prick test and RAST was 84% and 78%, respectively. CONCLUSION: Our results indicate that clinically relevant cross-reactivity among various species of fish may exist. Advising fish-allergic subjects to avoid all fish species should be emphasized until a species can be proven safe to eat by provocative challenge.
[118] - Sampson HA, Ho DG. Relationship between food-specific IgE concentrations and the risk of positive food challenges in children and adolescents. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1997;100:444-451
"BACKGROUND: The double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenge (DBPCFC) is the ""gold standard"" for diagnosis of food hypersensitivity. Skin prick tests and RASTs are sensitive indicators of food-specific IgE antibodies but poor predictors of clinical reactivity. Previous studies suggested that high concentrations of food-specific IgE antibody were predictive of food-induced clinical symptoms. Because the CAP System FEIA (Pharmacia Diagnostics, Uppsala, Sweden) provides a quantitative assessment of allergen-specific IgE antibody, this study was undertaken to determine the potential utility of the CAP System FEIA in diagnosis of IgE-mediated food hypersensitivity . METHODS: Sera from 196 patients with food allergy were analyzed for specific IgE antibodies to egg, milk, peanut, soy, wheat, and fish by CAP System FEIA. Sera were randomly selected from 300 stored samples of children and adolescents who had been evaluated by history, skin prick tests, and DBPCFCs. The study population was highly atopic; all patients had atopic dermatitis, and approximately 50% had asthma and allergic rhinitis at the time of initial evaluation. The performance characteristics of the CAP System FEIA were compared with those of skin prick tests and the outcome of DBPCFCs or ""convincing"" histories of anaphylactic reactions . RESULTS: The prevalence of specific food allergies in the study population varied from 22% for wheat to 73% for egg. Allergy to egg, milk, peanut, and soy accounted for 87% of confirmed reactions. The performance characteristics of skin prick tests and CAP System FEIA (egg, milk, peanut, fish) were comparable, with excellent sensitivity and negative predictive accuracy but poor specificity and positive predictive accuracy. The performance characteristics of the CAP System FEIA for soy and wheat were poor. For egg, milk, peanut, and fish allergy, diagnostic levels of IgE, which could predict clinical reactivity in this population with greater than 95% certainty, were identified: egg, 6 kilounits of allergen-specific IgE per liter (kU[A]/L); milk, 32 kU(A)/L; peanut, 15 kU(A)/L; and fish, 20 kU(A)/L . CONCLUSIONS: When compared with the outcome of DBPCFCs, results of CAP System FEIA are generally comparable to those of skin prick tests in predicting symptomatic food hypersensitivity. Furthermore, by measuring the concentrations of food-specific IgE antibodies with the CAP System FEIA, it is possible to identify a subset of patients who are highly likely (>95%) to experience clinical reactions to egg, milk, peanut, or fish. This could eliminate the need to perform DBPCFCs in a significant number of patients suspected of having IgE-mediated food allergy."
[119] - Sampson HA. Utility of food-specific IgE concentrations in predicting symptomatic food allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2001;107:891-896
BACKGROUND: The double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenge is considered the gold standard for diagnosing food allergy. However, in a retrospective analysis of children and adolescents with atopic dermatitis and food allergy, discrete food-specific IgE concentrations were established that could predict clinical reactivity to egg, milk, peanut, and fish with greater than 95% certainty. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this investigation was to determine the utility of these 95% predictive decision points in a prospective evaluation of food allergy. METHODS: Sera from 100 consecutive children and adolescents referred for evaluation of food allergy were analyzed for specific IgE antibodies to egg, milk, peanut, soy, wheat, and fish by using the Pharmacia CAP System FEIA. Food-specific IgE values were compared with history and the results of skin prick tests and food challenges to determine the efficacy of previously established 95% predictive decision points in identifying patients with increased probability of reacting during a specific food challenge. RESULTS: One hundred children (62% male; median age, 3.8 years; range, 0.4-14.3 years) were evaluated for food allergy. The diagnosis of food allergy was established by means of history or oral food challenge. On the basis of the previously established 95% predictive decision points for egg, milk, peanut, and fish allergy, greater than 95% of food allergies diagnosed in this prospective study were correctly identified by quantifying serum food-specific IgE concentrations. CONCLUSION: In a prospective study of children and adolescents referred for evaluation of food allergy, previously established 95% predictive decision points of food-specific IgE antibody concentrations for 4 major food allergens were effective in predicting clinical reactivity. Quantification of food-specific IgE is a useful test for diagnosing symptomatic allergy to egg, milk, peanut, and fish in the pediatric population and could eliminate the need to perform double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenges in a significant number of children.
[120] - Östblom E, Lilja G, Ahlstedt S, van Hage M, Wickman M. Patterns of quantitative food-specific IgE-antibodies and reported food hypersensitivity in 4-year-old children. Allergy 2008;63:418-424
BACKGROUND: Diagnosis of food hypersensitivity (FHS) is difficult and interpretation of food allergy tests is complicated . OBJECTIVE: To investigate the probability of reported FHS in relation to levels of food-specific IgE-antibodies (AB) in a population-based setting of 4-year-old children (n = 2336) . METHODS: Information on FHS was obtained from a questionnaire and specific IgE-AB to milk, egg, fish, peanut, soy and wheat were analysed . RESULTS: Thirty-one per cent of the children with reported FHS (n = 284) were sensitized (> or =0.35 kU(A)/l) to at least one of the tested foods compared with 11% of children without FHS (n = 2052). Furthermore, the probability of reported symptoms to milk, egg and fish increased with increasing levels of food-specific IgE-AB to the same food allergens. A similar trend was seen for peanut and wheat, but not for soy. Increasing levels of specific IgE-AB to milk or egg were also associated with an increasing risk of reported symptoms caused by other foods . CONCLUSIONS: Quantitative measurements of IgE-AB to milk, egg and fish are useful to evaluate IgE-associated FHS in preschool children also in a population based sample. Such measurements appear to be of limited value for soy bean and wheat, in particular as a screening method.
[121] - Hansen TK, Bindslev-Jensen C, Stahl Skov P, Poulsen LK. Codfish allergy in adults. Specific tests for IgE and histamine release vs double-blind placebo-controlled challenges. Clin Exp Allergy 1996;26:1276-1285
BACKGROUND: At present, several in vitro tests for immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated food allergy are available. An estimation of the diagnostic accuracy of the various tests used in predicting clinical sensitivity to codfish in a well-characterized allergic material is necessary . OBJECTIVES: To compare the diagnostic value of four specific IgE tests, and histamine release from basophils (HR) in identifying clinical type I allergy to codfish. As a true diagnosis, double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenges (DBPCFC) were employed . METHODS: Eight clinically codfish-allergic adult patients were investigated together with 30 codfish-tolerant control subjects for evidence of codfish-specific reactivity by Phadebas RAST (PHA), Pharmacia CAP System RAST (CAP), Magic Lite (ML) and HR. To characterize the diagnostic properties of a freshly prepared raw codfish extract, experiments were conducted employing an in-house radioallergosorbent test (RAST), the Maxisorp RAST (MAXI) and HR. Finally, protein profile and IgE-reacting allergens were detected by means of sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and immunoblotting . RESULTS: The sensitivities of HR with commercial extract and the three commercially available specific IgE analyses were 0.83 and 1.00 respectively. Specificities were 1.00 (HR) and 0.87-1.00 (specific IgE tests). Freshly prepared codfish extracts improved the sensitivity of HR. SDS-PAGE revealed approximately 29 bands (< 14.3-200 kDa) including a band of 12-13 kDa, and in immunoblotting 18 sera identified 17 IgE-binding bands. The protein migrating at 12-13 kDa was identified in the fresh codfish extract tested with sera from all clinical codfish allergics, while no significant reaction was seen in the control subjects . CONCLUSION: Based on the small number of adult patients included in our study, the in vitro assays with commercial and fresh extracts have high sensitivity and are acceptable for screening for codfish allergy. Specificity of Phadebas, CAP, and our in-house RAST was less than unity, whereas ML and strong binding of IgE to a 12-13 kDa protein completely matches DBPCFC results, and thus seems sufficient for establishing the diagnosis.
[122] - Kuehn A, Felten P, Hilger C, Hentges F. Cloning, characterization and expression of cDNAs encoding the fish allergen parvalbumin from tuna, trout, redfish and herring. Allergy 2007;62(suppl. 83):329
Background: Fish allergy is a widespread concern of clinical importance. In different culture areas, the market share of consumed fish species varies. From cod, carp, mackerel and salmon, the major allergen parvalbumin (parv) was previously characterized in detail. Indeed, other species like Yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares), rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), redfish (Sebastus marinus) and herring (Clupea harengus) are also of importance for European markets. The aim in this study was to further analyze the native parvalbumins of these fishes and to clone the cDNAs in view of recombinant expression. Methods: Protein extracts were prepared from fish tissues, proteins separated by SDS PAGE and analyzed for the presence of parvalbumins. Purified, native parvalbumins were obtained from heat treatment and GFC (gel filtration chromatography). Cloning of the cDNA sequences was performed by 3'- and 5'-RACE PCR strategy using degenerated, but parvalbumin-specific oligonucleotides. Recombinant parvalbumins were expressed in E. coli and purified by IMAC (immobilized metal ion affinity chromatography). Protein identity and antigenicity was confirmed by Western immunoblotting. Results: Eight different cDNAs encoding full-length parv were cloned: 1 from tuna (T1), 2 from rainbow trout (O1, O2), 2 from redfish (R1, R2) and 3 from herring (H1, H2, H3). The translated sequences (108 - 110 aa) belong to the beta-lineage of parv. Compared with carp parv Cyp c1, protein identities range from 71 % to 89 %. Recombinant parv from tuna, rainbow trout, redfish and herring were expressed as soluble proteins in E. coli M15 with a yield of 5 - 15 mg/ 500 ml of bacterial culture. The recombinant proteins were compared with native parvalbumins in regard of their IgE antibody binding characteristic. Conclusion: Parv from four fish species, which are commonly consumed in Europe, were investigated. For the first time, recombinant parvalbumins are available from tuna, rainbow trout, redfish and herring. The recombinant proteins showed good IgE binding properties. They could be used for species-specific sub-typing of anti-parvalbumin IgE reactivity in fish allergic patients.
[124] - Szalai K, Untersmayr E, Riemer A, Hemmer W, Swoboda I, Hantusch B, et al. Generation of IgE-specific mimotopes of parvalbumin: tools for fish allergy treatment. EAACI 25th Congress, Vienna, 10-14 June, 2006, Poster n°512
Background: Fish with its major allergen parvalbumin is among the most common food allergens and can trigger life-threatening anaphylactic reactions. To date no curative treatment for fish allergy is available. In the present study we have focused on the generation of mimotopes i.e. epitope mimics for epitope-specific induction of blocking antibodies. Methods: Specific IgE was purified from fish allergic patients' sera using recombinant parvalbumin (Cyp c 1) and was applied for selection of parvalbumin-specific mimotopes from a circular random decapeptide phage library. After 4 successive rounds of biopanning, 75 phage clones were screened for binding capacity with parvalbumin-specific IgE. The most reactive clones were further analyzed by DNA sequencing and computational matching onto the natural protein surface. Furthermore, purified clones were used for intraperitoneal immunization of BALB/c mice. The consecutive parvalbumin-specific immune response was evaluated by ELISA. Results: Three epitopic regions on the surface of the natural allergen were defined by computational matching of the selected mimotopes. Interestingly, previously defined linear epitopes of cod parvalbumin were found in close proximity, or overlapping with our mimotope matching areas. Mouse immunizations with phage-displayed mimotopes induced a parvalbumin-specific IgG response as a proof of molecular mimicry. Conclusion: Based on our data, we suggest that the identified peptide mimotopes are suitable tools for the induction of parvalbumin-specific IgG in an epitope-specific fashion. Supported by grant 10326 of Austrian National bank "Jubiläumsfond" and by grant SFB-F1808-B04 of the Austrian National Science Foundation (FWF).
[125] - Swoboda I, Bugajska-Schretter A, Verdino P, Keller W, Sperr WR, Valent P, et al. Recombinant carp parvalbumin, the major cross-reactive fish allergen: a tool for diagnosis and therapy of fish allergy. J Immunol 2002;168:4576-4584
IgE-mediated reactions to fish allergens represent one of the most frequent causes of food allergy. We have constructed an expression cDNA library from carp (Cyprinus carpio) muscle in phage lambda gt11 and used serum IgE from a fish allergic patient to isolate 33 cDNA clones that coded for two parvalbumin isoforms (Cyp c 1.01 and Cyp c 1.02) with comparable IgE binding capacities. Both isoforms represented calcium-binding proteins that belonged to the beta-lineage of parvalbumins. The Cyp c 1.01 cDNA was overexpressed in Escherichia coli, and rCyp c 1.01 was purified to homogeneity. Circular dichroism analysis and mass spectroscopy showed that rCyp c 1.01 represented a folded protein with mainly alpha-helical secondary structure and a molecular mass of 11,416 Da, respectively. rCyp c 1.01 reacted with IgE from all fish-allergic patients tested (n = 60), induced specific and dose-dependent basophil histamine release, and contained most of the IgE epitopes (70%) present in natural allergen extracts from cod, tuna, and salmon. Therefore, it may be used to identify patients suffering from IgE-mediated fish allergy. The therapeutic potential of rCyp c 1.01 is indicated by our findings that rabbit Abs raised against rCyp c 1.01 inhibited the binding of IgE (n = 25) in fish-allergic patients to rCyp c 1.01 between 35 and 97% (84% mean inhibition) and that depletion of calcium strongly reduced IgE recognition of rCyp c 1.01. The latter results suggest that it will be possible to develop strategies for immunotherapy for fish allergy that are based on calcium-free hypoallergenic rCyp c 1.01 derivatives.
[126] - Ma Y, Griesmeier U, Susani M, Radauer C, Briza P, Erler A, et al. Comparison of natural and recombinant forms of the major fish allergen parvalbumin from cod and carp. Mol Nutr Food Res 2008;52(suppl. 2):S196-S207
Allergic reaction following fish consumption can trigger life-threatening reactions in predisposed individuals. Parvalbumins from different species have been identified as the major fish allergens. There are two distinct phylogenetic lineages of parvalbumins, alpha and beta. Most allergic reactions are caused by beta-parvalbumins. We cloned and expressed cDNAs encoding cod (Gadus morhua) and carp (Cyprinus carpio) beta-parvalbumins and purified natural cod beta-parvalbumin. CD spectra of the purified proteins showed that their overall secondary structure contents were very similar. No differences in thermal stability were monitored in the calcium-bound or calcium-depleted form of natural cod parvalbumin. IgE reactivity was assessed using 26 sera of fish allergic patients from Spain, The Netherlands, and Greece in immunoblot and ELISA experiments. Twenty-five of the 26 patients with IgE reactivity to native and recombinant cod parvalbumin also reacted to the recombinant carp parvalbumin. IgE inhibition assays were performed using cod and carp extracts and purified recombinant parvalbumin of cod and carp. High crossreactivity among cod and carp parvalbumins was observed in immunoblots as well as in fluid phase assays. Natural and recombinant parvalbumins gave comparable results when performing various in vitro diagnostic assays.
[127] - Swoboda I, Bugajska-Schretter A, Verdino P, Keller W, Sperr WR, Valent P, et al. Recombinant carp parvalbumin, the major cross-reactive fish allergen: a tool for diagnosis and therapy of fish allergy. J Immunol 2002;168:4576-4584
IgE-mediated reactions to fish allergens represent one of the most frequent causes of food allergy. We have constructed an expression cDNA library from carp (Cyprinus carpio) muscle in phage lambda gt11 and used serum IgE from a fish allergic patient to isolate 33 cDNA clones that coded for two parvalbumin isoforms (Cyp c 1.01 and Cyp c 1.02) with comparable IgE binding capacities. Both isoforms represented calcium-binding proteins that belonged to the beta-lineage of parvalbumins. The Cyp c 1.01 cDNA was overexpressed in Escherichia coli, and rCyp c 1.01 was purified to homogeneity. Circular dichroism analysis and mass spectroscopy showed that rCyp c 1.01 represented a folded protein with mainly alpha-helical secondary structure and a molecular mass of 11,416 Da, respectively. rCyp c 1.01 reacted with IgE from all fish-allergic patients tested (n = 60), induced specific and dose-dependent basophil histamine release, and contained most of the IgE epitopes (70%) present in natural allergen extracts from cod, tuna, and salmon. Therefore, it may be used to identify patients suffering from IgE-mediated fish allergy. The therapeutic potential of rCyp c 1.01 is indicated by our findings that rabbit Abs raised against rCyp c 1.01 inhibited the binding of IgE (n = 25) in fish-allergic patients to rCyp c 1.01 between 35 and 97% (84% mean inhibition) and that depletion of calcium strongly reduced IgE recognition of rCyp c 1.01. The latter results suggest that it will be possible to develop strategies for immunotherapy for fish allergy that are based on calcium-free hypoallergenic rCyp c 1.01 derivatives.
[128] - Van Do T, Elsayed S, Florvaag E, Hordvik I, Endresen C. Allergy to fish parvalbumins: Studies on the cross-reactivity of allergens from 9 commonly consumed fish. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005;116:1314-1320
BACKGROUND: Fish-hypersensitive patients can probably tolerate some fish species while being allergic to others . OBJECTIVE: To determine the allergenic cross-reactivity between 9 commonly edible fish: cod, salmon, pollack, mackerel, tuna, herring, wolffish, halibut, and flounder . METHODS: Sera from 10 patients allergic to fish and rabbit antisera against 3 parvalbumins (Gad c 1, Sal s 1, and The c 1) were used. Cross-reactivity was investigated by SDS/PAGE and IgE immunoblotting, IgG ELISA, IgE ELISA inhibition, and skin prick test (SPT) . RESULTS: Cod (Gad c 1), salmon (Sal s 1), pollack (The c 1), herring, and wolffish share antigenic and allergenic determinants as shown by immunoblots and IgE ELISA, whereas halibut, flounder, tuna, and mackerel displayed lowest cross-reactivities. The highest mean IgE ELISA inhibition percent of 10 sera was obtained by Gad c 1, followed by The c 1, herring, Sal s 1, wolffish, halibut, flounder, tuna, and mackerel with the least inhibition. Nine of the 10 patients showed positive SPT to cod, salmon, and pollack; 8 patients reacted to recombinant (r) Sal s 1. Positive SPTs to rGad c 1 and rThe c 1 were demonstrated in 1 patient . CONCLUSION: Gad c 1, Sal s 1, The c 1, herring, and wolffish contained the most potent cross-reacting allergens, whereas halibut, flounder, tuna, and mackerel were the least allergenic in the current study. The latter could probably be tolerated by some of the tested patients.
[129] - Flais MJ, Kim SS, Harris KE, Greenberger PA. Salmon Caviar-Induced Anaphylactic Shock. Allergy Asthma Proc 2004;25:233-236
BACKGROUND: Foods are the most common cause of anaphylaxis in cases where a cause can be identified. A 55 y/o female ingested 5 mL of caviar (salmon roe) for the first time. Within 15 minutes she experienced upper lip edema, dyspnea, difficulty swallowing, throat tightness, hoarseness, nausea, dizziness, and she lost consciousness. In the emergency department her blood pressure was 66/47. She did not develop a rash. She had never had any food hypersensitivity before. She also had eaten pork and sauerkraut with the caviar and subsequently has eaten these 2 items without reaction. She had previously eaten salmon with no reaction. She has not consumed caviar since this episode. PURPOSE: To describe a case of caviar-induced anaphylaxis and demonstrate the presence of IgE to the caviar. METHODS: After obtaining consent for all procedures, immediate cutaneous reactivity to the liquid the caviar was packed in and to a commercially prepared salmon extract was examined. ELISAs were established to detect serum IgE to the caviar liquid. Inhibition studies with the caviar liquid and the patient's serum were performed. RESULTS: Immediate cutaneous reactivity was demonstrated to the caviar liquid by a 9 ◊ 7 mm wheal with 55 ◊ 15 mm erythema. The patient was non-reactive to the commercial salmon extract, and 3 control subjects were non-reactive to the caviar liquid. ELISA studies revealed serum IgE antibodies to caviar in the patient's serum at 1:5 and 1:10 dilutions. In inhibition studies with caviar (0.01 mg/mL, 0.1 mg/mL and 1.0 mg/mL) and a 1:10 dilution of serum, caviar inhibited IgE binding by 68%, 73% and 73% respectively. CONCLUSION: Caviar induced a severe anaphylactic reaction in this patient. ELISA and inhibition assays demonstrated serum IgE to the caviar liquid. We believe this is the first reported case of caviar-induced anaphylaxis.]
[130] - Makinen-Kiljunen S, Kiistala R, Varjonen E. Severe reactions from roe without concomitant fish allergy. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2003;91:413-416
BACKGROUND: Although fish allergy is common, no studies have been published on allergy to fish roe. OBJECTIVE: To describe 2 cases of IgE-mediated allergy to 2 roe species. METHODS: Two patients, one with local symptoms and the other with anaphylaxis following ingestion of roe, underwent skin prick testing (SPT) with 2 roe species, whitefish roe (WFR) and rainbow trout roe (RTR). Serum samples were taken for IgE measurement and immunoblotting to identify roe allergens. Inhibition studies were performed to scrutinize the cross-reactivity between the roes and to fish. RESULTS: The results of the SPTs with the roes were clearly positive in both patients but negative in control persons. The results of SPTs to all other foods were negative. Roe-specific IgE levels were elevated in the serum samples of both patients. Immunoblotting revealed different IgE-binding patterns of the extracts and different inhibition profiles with the serum samples. In WFR blotting, both serum samples detected a heavy IgE-binding band at approximately 20 kDa, which was not inhibited with fish. Cross-reactivity between the roes was demonstrated in the patient with local symptoms from RTR but not in the patient with anaphylaxis from WFR. The first serum sample also detected several IgE-binding bands in the RTR blot, the most intensive at 21 to 23 kDa and 30 kDa, which were partially inhibited by WFR and more completely with fish. The anaphylaxis patient did not detect allergens in the RTR blot. After the investigation, the patients have remained symptom free and able to consume all kinds of fish without problems. CONCLUSIONS: IgE-mediated allergy to roe is possible without concomitant fish allergy. Roe allergy should be explored in patients who test negative to fish but are suspected of having seafood-related allergy.
[132] - Makinen-Kiljunen S, Kiistala R, Varjonen E. Severe reactions from roe without concomitant fish allergy. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2003;91:413-416
BACKGROUND: Although fish allergy is common, no studies have been published on allergy to fish roe. OBJECTIVE: To describe 2 cases of IgE-mediated allergy to 2 roe species. METHODS: Two patients, one with local symptoms and the other with anaphylaxis following ingestion of roe, underwent skin prick testing (SPT) with 2 roe species, whitefish roe (WFR) and rainbow trout roe (RTR). Serum samples were taken for IgE measurement and immunoblotting to identify roe allergens. Inhibition studies were performed to scrutinize the cross-reactivity between the roes and to fish. RESULTS: The results of the SPTs with the roes were clearly positive in both patients but negative in control persons. The results of SPTs to all other foods were negative. Roe-specific IgE levels were elevated in the serum samples of both patients. Immunoblotting revealed different IgE-binding patterns of the extracts and different inhibition profiles with the serum samples. In WFR blotting, both serum samples detected a heavy IgE-binding band at approximately 20 kDa, which was not inhibited with fish. Cross-reactivity between the roes was demonstrated in the patient with local symptoms from RTR but not in the patient with anaphylaxis from WFR. The first serum sample also detected several IgE-binding bands in the RTR blot, the most intensive at 21 to 23 kDa and 30 kDa, which were partially inhibited by WFR and more completely with fish. The anaphylaxis patient did not detect allergens in the RTR blot. After the investigation, the patients have remained symptom free and able to consume all kinds of fish without problems. CONCLUSIONS: IgE-mediated allergy to roe is possible without concomitant fish allergy. Roe allergy should be explored in patients who test negative to fish but are suspected of having seafood-related allergy.
[135] - Shibata R, Nishima S. Measurements of Serum Specific IgE Antibody to Fish Roe and Mollusks in Children With Seafood Allergy. AAAAI 60th Annual Meeting, San Francisco, 19-23 March 2004, Poster n°1167
Rationale Seafood is a major allergen in adults with food hypersensitivity in Japan. Recently seafood anaphylaxis is increasing in children. We measured serum specific IgE to salmon roe, Alaska Pollack roe, clam, oyster and scallop in children with seafood allergy to investigate sensitization to these allergens. Method s : Forty-five patients, the average age 3.6 years, with seafood allergy are enrolled in the study. Those consist of 28 fish allergy, 26 shellfish allergy, 13 mollusks allergy and 5 fish roe allergy. Specific IgE antibodies to salmon roe, Alaska Pollack roe, clam, oyster and scallop were measured by UniCAP specific IgE kit. Result s : Forty-one patients with fish and/or shellfish allergy were divided into 3 groups; group1 (15 cases): fish only, group2 (13 cases): fish+shellfish, group3 (13 cases): shellfish only. Positive IgE to one or more mollusks were identified 85% in group 3, 56% in group 2 and 27% in group 1. One third of the 3 groups were positive IgE to one or both fish roe. Twelve patients had history of hypersensitivity to mollusks and 8 of these were positive IgE to all 3 mollusks tested. Three patients with anaphylaxis to salmon or Alaska Pollack roe had positive IgE (Score 3 ~4) to both fish roes. Conclusions : The results suggest that measurements of serum specific IgE to these seafood allergens are useful for diagnosis of fish roe and mollusks in patients with fish or shellfish allergy.
[136] - Shinoda Y, Kyouda T, Tomita A, Nonaka Z, Soga K, Umeda Y, et al. [The positivity of specific IgE to salmon roe and cod roe in outpatients]. Rinsho Byori 2006;54:17-21
PURPOSE: To clarify the positivity of specific IgE to salmon and cod roe in outpatients. METHODS: Specific IgE were assayed using CAP RAST system in 91 pediatric outpatients. They were 47 males and 44 females, including 22 allergic, 29 infectious, 10 neurological, 8 gastrointestinal, 7 urological, 6 hematologic, 3 metabolic disease and 6 other disorders. For control, 30 sera from healthy normal adult volunteers were assayed. Additionally, sera from 653 allergic patients were also collected in our laboratory. Specific IgEs against salmon and cod meat were also assayed simultaneously. RESULTS: In 91 pediatric patients, two children were salmon roe positive and one child was cod roe positive. Three children scored class 1, borderline positive in salmon roe, and one child scored class 1 in cod roe. Other children were negative in all allergens. No positive sera were found in normal adult volunteers. Among 653 specimens in our laboratory, the positivity of specific IgE to salmon and cod roe were 25%, and 9%, respectively. Infants younger than two years old had higher ratio than older children. There was a significant correlation (r = 0.676) between the titers of IgE to salmon and cod roe. On the other hand, the titers of IgE to their meats correlated less than those to their roes. Our results support previous reports that fish roe from different species have common antigen apart from those of fish meat. CONCLUSION: Positive ratio of salmon and cod roe specific IgE were 2.2 and 1.1% in pediatric outpatients.
[138] - Kondo Y, Kakami M, Koyama H, Yasuda T, Nakajima Y, Kawamura M, et al. IgE Cross-reactivity between Fish Roe (Salmon, Herring and Pollock) and Chicken Egg in Patients Anaphylactic to Salmon Roe. Allergol Int 2005;54:317-323
Salmon roe (SR) anaphylaxis has often been reported and salmon roe-containing foods are designated as 'recommended for allergic labeling'; however, there have been no reports about its allergenicity, including its cross-reactivity. Because its cross-reactivity is controversial, clinicians are often confused concerning education regarding its dietary elimination. This study measured the specific-IgE to salmon roe, herring roe, pollock roe, salmon and chicken egg using RAST in 27 patients with a fish allergy and using the sera of 2 patients with salmon roe anaphylaxis, evaluated the cross-reactivity between the various roe, salmon and chicken egg. The study concluded that there was cross-reactivity between salmon roe and herring roe, but no relationship between salmon roe and chicken egg.
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